The use of encyclopedias has since their entry in Sweden, played a central role in communicating and defining knowledge to society. This essay examines the representation of peoples (race) in Africa, Asia and the Orient in encyclopedias between 1845-2020. The essay aims to explain and show how several selected concepts have changed in the encyclopedias’ descriptions over time in Sweden. The results show that the encyclopedias were highly influenced by racial biology and scientific racism the further back in time the encyclopedias were issued. People from Africa, Asia and the Orient were described with external characteristics and at times associated with different psychic characteristics. Through the representation of appearance, at times presented as different and foreign, one can see a construction between “we” and “the others”. The encyclopedias also made descriptions of people with generalizing derogatory concepts that were imbued by racism and dogmatic views on the different. Descriptions of peoples appearance and character traits were something that gradually disappeared over time.

Makala hii inachanganua wahusika na dhana kuu zinazosawiriwa katika riwaya ya Kiza Katika Nuru (1988) ya Said Ahmed Mohamed kwa kuzingatia mihimili ya mojawapo ya mikabala ya Umarxi Mpya, mkabala wa mwanafalsafa na mwananadharia kutoka Marekani ya Kilatini, Paulo Freire. Kiini cha mkabala huu wa umarxi-mpya ni kukosoa na kutupilia mbali mitazamo kuhusu elimu inayomnyima mwanafunzi fursa ya kujifunza kutokana na mazingira yake. Uchambuzi huu unabainisha jinsi Umarxi Mpya wa Kifreire unavyofaa kwa kuchambua riwaya ya Kiza Katika Nuru, na riwaya nyingine za Kiswahili zinazofanana nayo. / This article analyses characters and main concepts in Said Ahmed Mohamed’s novel Kiza katika Nuru (Darkness in Light) through applying tenets of one of the Neo-Marxist theories, namely the Freirean one. Paul Freire’s Neo-Marxist theory is primarily associated with the Latin American environment and centres around the debunking of the banking concept education as a modus operand of revolution. This analysis demonstrates how Freirean Neo-Marxism is relevant and appropriate to the understanding and interpretation of Kiza Katika Nuru and other Kiswahili novels that are similar to it.

The depiction of family ties is one of the core elements of Swahili novels in Tanzania, especially in the post-Independence, socialist period, conveying all the contradictions of that social and cultural context. On one hand the representation of family relationships in terms of tense and aggressive behaviour (Mlacha 1987: 82) reflects the clashes of those years, between town and countryside, between genders and between different generations. On the other hand, the image of a new family - like for instance Chonya, Masika and her baby in Ndyanao Balisidya’s novel Shida (1975) - stands as a commitment to an alternative society, a dream of a better life inspired by Ujamaa which marked the Swahili prose of the 1970’s (Mbughuni 1980: 92). Said A. Mohamed, after his first novels which dealt with the colonial and pre-revolutionary past, turned his attention to contemporary society, but has continued to develop the idea of the family as a symbolic space where relationships between the characters articulate the inequalities and the conflicts within Zanzibari society. His literary discourse, as will become clear in the following pages, brilliantly investigates the deep roots and the countless facets of authoritarianism in contemporary Zanzibari society, depicting a gallery of fathers - in a biological and in a metaphorical sense – who are despotic, immoral, hypocritical, and increasingly cynical.

Contemporary Swahili poetry is developing according to three main trends. The followers of the first trend - the so called "traditionalists" - stick to classic forms of old Swahili poetry. Following the Swahili canon of versification, traditionalists continue to be within the limits of two main genres of old Swahili literature - tendi (long poems) and mashairi (moderate lyrics and philosophical verses). In Swahili poetry foregoing sudden changes were marked by the appearance of a group of young authors on the poetic stage in the 1970s, who gave a dare to tradition. Their venture radically changed the character of Swahili literature, marking the appearance of the second trend of Swahili poetry, the \\\"new\\\" or \\\"modernistic\\\" poetry. But along with traditional and \\\"modernistic\\\" schools there exists a third trend of Swahili poetry - it is that sort of versification, which one may call \\\"transitional\\\". In general it looks lile pure \\\"modernism\\\", where at first sight one cannot see even the faintest resemblance with the traditional canon, but the more careful search makes it obvious that there is a true continuity between traditional and contemporary art. The best examples of such transformation are the poems of two prominent figures of contemporary Swahili poetry, the Tanzanians Theobald Mvungi and Said Ahmed Mohamed.

\"Are there any national literatures in black Africa yet? The simple answer is no. [...] If one examines the development of the African language literature that do exists, one is struck by certain recurring tendencies. Many of the books produced, particularly the early works, are of a predominantly moralistic nature. Sometimes they are retelling of folk stories or Bible stories, sometimes imitations of European religious literature, sometimes both.\\\" (Lindfors 1997: 121; 123) Certain anomalies are obvious in the above extract. Swahili written literature with its long-standing tradition, dating far back to the 17th century, has relativly gathered its own aesthetic criteria, values and sensibility, hence \\\''own\\\'' integrity and world view. I dare say that Lindfors will be suprised to learn today, how fast the Swahili novel has developed since when he had left it when he read Andrzejewski et al (1985) and Gérard (1981), who (by the way), themselves did not then see the their works as presenting a complete picture of African literatures in African languages. This essay aims at showing the predicament of the Swahili novelist at the crossroads and how, in a contemporary situation, s/he works out his or her strategies towards resolving the impasses.

This article presents an interpretation of Said Ahmed Mohamed`s forth novel Kiza katika Nuru (1988). My aim is to show that this novel is an engaging model of modern Swahili fiction, in which the author provides a very acute perception of the contemporary social and political realities in Tanzania. The article focuses on the plot and characters, and will wouch some aspects of language usage and problems of translation. The latter aspect is derived from my work experience in translation Kiza katika Nuru into Italian: Il buio nella luce (Nocera 2004).

The label ‘Muslim’ is increasingly being used to exclude migrants and non-ethnic Germans from German society. Although this process began after 2000 when Germany’s citizenship laws changed from jus sanguinis to incorporate an element of jus soli and minority subjects could no longer be ‘othered’ by their passports alone, it intensified shortly afterwards due to the terrorist attacks of 9/11 (Spielhaus 2006). Specifically within the German context, the discovery that Mohamed Atta, one of the perpetrators of 9/11, had lived and studied in Hamburg, the foiled bomb plots of 2006 and 2007, and the 2011 Frankfurt Airport shooting all served to buttress this paradigmatic shift from national/ethnic difference to religious. Yet, rather than responding in kind to this identitarian entrenchment, the work of Zafer Şenocak, SAID, Feridun Zaimoglu and Navid Kermani (all minority writers of varying Muslim backgrounds) suggests new ways of thinking about community, identity and religiosity that are fluid, non-foundational and open to an undecided future, which can all be illuminated by Jean-Luc Nancy’s theories of the ‘inoperative community’ (2000 and 1991) and the deconstruction of monotheism (2008).For Nancy, the traditional understanding of community as the fusion of immanent individuals with a common identity must be resisted, as this disguises our actual ontological interrelatedness as ‘singular beings’ who are radically open to one another. This non-foundational approach regards the spacing of interconnected singular beings (their ‘being-in-common’) as the sense of the world, and rejects universalising ideologies that seek to confer sense upon the world from the outside, since these act to close down meaning and divide us up into polarised communities. In Nancy’s terms, whether these ideologies be political or religious, they are both defined by the monotheistic paradigm that operates through a separate ideal world that acts as our world’s guiding principle. This is why Nancy himself rejects the term cosmopolitanism, as its philosophical roots in the metaphysics of the Enlightenment stem from the ideal world of pure Reason. Nevertheless, just as the inoperative community can be understood as a non-foundational route to cosmopolitan solidarities, the deconstruction of monotheism too leaves space for a non-foundational religiosity that resists traditional identities and symbolism. Nancy proposes, borrowing from mysticism, a God not as ‘the “other world” [...], but the other of the world’ (2008, p. 10), that is to say, a religiosity that does not position God as the subject of the world and its organizing principle, but concerns itself instead with glimpsing the divine in the alterity in our world, which results from the very nothingness of its origins. These arguments, that I place at the forefront of post-9/11 debates surrounding cosmopolitanism and religion, can shed light on the literary writing of Şenocak, SAID, Zaimoglu and Kermani, who draw upon the immanentist tradition within Islamic mysticism in order to intimate a non-identitarian religiosity that figures in the alterity of the world and leaves open all possibilities for the future. In this regard, their fiction hints at an affective and worldly spirituality that can be found in love, sex, music and the natural world, which, whilst also serving to dispel stereotypical associations between Islam and sexual conservatism, hints at a post-monotheistic religiosity beyond identity and ideology. Thus, rather than creating a homogenous foundation through dialogue (the approach of the German state and often of interkultureller Germanistik), the non-foundational and cosmopolitan conceptualisations of the self, community and religiosity found in the writing of these authors both undermine the closed identities that are clashing violently across the globe at the start of the twenty-first century and also open up the space for us to imagine new ways of coexisting.

Aquilo que é posto na terceira pessoa, aquilo de que se fala/escreve, quando considerado como produto da interação autor/destinatário(s), traz, no apelo ao já-dito, um terceiro elemento (uma terceira voz) na composição do objeto de discurso. Este último, por se constituir também a partir de um já-dito, de uma voz social, expressa uma réplica específica do locutor, de acordo com as diversas posições as diferentes experiências sociais que ele, na qualidade de escrevente, assume na interação. Pensar o objeto de discurso como uma voz social é, portanto, assumi-lo como produto da réplica do locutor a destinatários (BAKHTIN, [1979] 2010a), o que permite refletir não só sobre a interação presente, mas também constituindo-a sobre possíveis dizeres ligados a práticas sociais recuperadas pelo escrevente. Para tanto, ao assumir a participação de um terceiro na produção de linguagem, busca-se descrevê-lo, no caso das redações de vestibular, em termos das vozes que participam dos textos dos vestibulandos e defini-las segundo práticas letradas a que o escrevente tem/teve acesso (direto ou indireto). O quadro teórico da análise dialógica (BAKHTIN [1961-1962, 1975, 1979] 2010 a, b, c) e o CÍRCULO), o da argumentação (PERELMAN; OLBRECHTS-TYTECA, 2005), o das teorias do letramento (STREET, 2012b, 2014) e o paradigma indiciário (GINZBURG, 1989) são assumidos como arcabouço teórico-metodológico do trabalho. Desse modo, são buscados os fenômenos que mobilizam o aparecimento de indícios materializados nos textos, fenômenos ao mesmo tempo ligados ao que há de específico da situação enunciativa imediata, por um lado, e aos que se mostram como elementos estabilizados nas e pelas interações ao longo da história, por outro. O corpus é composto por 264 redações de vestibular do exame da FUVEST de 2006, cujo tema foi trabalho. Os resultados obtidos evidenciam que a construção do objeto de discurso trabalho é um diálogo entre três interlocutores rigorosamente presentes nessa produção escrita: o escrevente, o(s) destinatário(s) e determinadas vozes do já-dito, cujas marcas se alojam no objeto de discurso, constituindo-o e a ele se impondo. / That which comes in the third person, that about which one says / writes, when it is considered a product of authors / addressees interactions, brings, by referring to an already-said, brings a third element (a third voice) in the composition of discourse objects. This last, due to also constitute itself from an already-said, a social voice, expressa reply from the addresser, in accordance with the many several positions the different social experiences that the addresser, as the author, takes in interactions. To think discourse objects as social voices is, thus, to accept it as a product of addressers replies to addressees (BAKHTIN, [1979] 2010a 2006), which allows to think not only about the present interaction, but also as its constitutive element on possible utterances linked by addressers to social practices authors bring to bear on their texts. For doing this, by accepting the participation of a third in language production, we aim to describe it, as regards college entrance exam texts, in terms of voices that participate in college entrance exam texts and define them according to school practices authors have had or have (direct or indirect) access. The theoretical foundation sof dialogical analysis (BAKHTIN [1961-1962, 1975, 1979] 2010 a, b, c) and the CIRCLE), modern rhetoric (PERELMAN; OLBRECHTS-TYTECA, 2005), literacy theories (STREET, 2012b, 2014), and the indiciary paradigm (GINZBURG, 1989), are taken as the works theoretical-methodological basis. Thus, phenomena are examined that mobilize the emergence of marks materialized in texts, phenomena at the same time linked to the specificities of the immediate enunciative situation, on the one side, and to what appear as elements stabilized in and by interactions throughout history, on the other. The corpus is composed by 264 FUVEST 2006 college entrance exam texts having work as their subject. Results obtained show that the construction of the discourse object work is a dialogue among three rigorously present interlocutors in these written productions: the addresser/author, addressees and some identifiable voices of the already-said, whose marks are summoned in discourse objects, constituting them and imposing themselves on them.

Aquilo que é posto na terceira pessoa, aquilo de que se fala/escreve, quando considerado como produto da interação autor/destinatário(s), traz, no apelo ao já-dito, um terceiro elemento (uma terceira voz) na composição do objeto de discurso. Este último, por se constituir também a partir de um já-dito, de uma voz social, expressa uma réplica específica do locutor, de acordo com as diversas posições as diferentes experiências sociais que ele, na qualidade de escrevente, assume na interação. Pensar o objeto de discurso como uma voz social é, portanto, assumi-lo como produto da réplica do locutor a destinatários (BAKHTIN, [1979] 2010a), o que permite refletir não só sobre a interação presente, mas também constituindo-a sobre possíveis dizeres ligados a práticas sociais recuperadas pelo escrevente. Para tanto, ao assumir a participação de um terceiro na produção de linguagem, busca-se descrevê-lo, no caso das redações de vestibular, em termos das vozes que participam dos textos dos vestibulandos e defini-las segundo práticas letradas a que o escrevente tem/teve acesso (direto ou indireto). O quadro teórico da análise dialógica (BAKHTIN [1961-1962, 1975, 1979] 2010 a, b, c) e o CÍRCULO), o da argumentação (PERELMAN; OLBRECHTS-TYTECA, 2005), o das teorias do letramento (STREET, 2012b, 2014) e o paradigma indiciário (GINZBURG, 1989) são assumidos como arcabouço teórico-metodológico do trabalho. Desse modo, são buscados os fenômenos que mobilizam o aparecimento de indícios materializados nos textos, fenômenos ao mesmo tempo ligados ao que há de específico da situação enunciativa imediata, por um lado, e aos que se mostram como elementos estabilizados nas e pelas interações ao longo da história, por outro. O corpus é composto por 264 redações de vestibular do exame da FUVEST de 2006, cujo tema foi trabalho. Os resultados obtidos evidenciam que a construção do objeto de discurso trabalho é um diálogo entre três interlocutores rigorosamente presentes nessa produção escrita: o escrevente, o(s) destinatário(s) e determinadas vozes do já-dito, cujas marcas se alojam no objeto de discurso, constituindo-o e a ele se impondo. / That which comes in the third person, that about which one says / writes, when it is considered a product of authors / addressees interactions, brings, by referring to an already-said, brings a third element (a third voice) in the composition of discourse objects. This last, due to also constitute itself from an already-said, a social voice, expressa reply from the addresser, in accordance with the many several positions the different social experiences that the addresser, as the author, takes in interactions. To think discourse objects as social voices is, thus, to accept it as a product of addressers replies to addressees (BAKHTIN, [1979] 2010a 2006), which allows to think not only about the present interaction, but also as its constitutive element on possible utterances linked by addressers to social practices authors bring to bear on their texts. For doing this, by accepting the participation of a third in language production, we aim to describe it, as regards college entrance exam texts, in terms of voices that participate in college entrance exam texts and define them according to school practices authors have had or have (direct or indirect) access. The theoretical foundation sof dialogical analysis (BAKHTIN [1961-1962, 1975, 1979] 2010 a, b, c) and the CIRCLE), modern rhetoric (PERELMAN; OLBRECHTS-TYTECA, 2005), literacy theories (STREET, 2012b, 2014), and the indiciary paradigm (GINZBURG, 1989), are taken as the works theoretical-methodological basis. Thus, phenomena are examined that mobilize the emergence of marks materialized in texts, phenomena at the same time linked to the specificities of the immediate enunciative situation, on the one side, and to what appear as elements stabilized in and by interactions throughout history, on the other. The corpus is composed by 264 FUVEST 2006 college entrance exam texts having work as their subject. Results obtained show that the construction of the discourse object work is a dialogue among three rigorously present interlocutors in these written productions: the addresser/author, addressees and some identifiable voices of the already-said, whose marks are summoned in discourse objects, constituting them and imposing themselves on them.

Uppsatsen behandlar den svenska medierapporteringen kring Turkiet och EU. Syftet var att undersöka om det fanns några imperialistiska och- eller kolonialistiska tankestrukturer i artiklarna kring Turkiets EU-anslutning i Dagens Nyheter och Svenska Dagbladet. Frågeställningen ämnade till att undersöka två frågor. Den första frågan syftade till att redogöra för hur rapporteringen kring Turkiet och EU sett ut i DN och SvD från och med 1999-då Turkiet officiellt accepterades som kandidatland till EU–fram till 2008. Den andra frågan syftade till att undersöka och belysa om det fanns drag av imperialistiska och- eller orientaliska tankemönster i dessa artiklar. Materialet till undersökningen består av tio artiklar av olika slag, fem stycken från Dagens Nyheter och fem stycken från Svenska Dagbladet, vilka hittades i mediearkivet.se. Teorin som användes i undersökningen är Edward Said's teori om Orientalism. Orientalism redogör för hur framställningarna ”Orienten” i bland annat Europeiska romaner och reseskildringar bidrog till att upprätta en dikotomi mellan européerna och ”de Andra”. Denna dikotomi var central för skapandet av den europeiska kulturen och för att hålla kvar och utveckla makten över Orienten. Kunskapen om Orienten är således långt ifrån objektiv eftersom den producerades av Västerlandet, som ett sätt att förhålla sig till- och kontrollera Orienten. Orientalism ifrågasätter objektiviteten och oskulden inom den västerländska forskningen. I studien har jag även använt mig av Richard Dyer's teori om ”den vita normen” där han menar att ”ras” är något man endast applicerar på icke-vita människor, och beskriver samt diskuterar den vita normens egenskaper. Metoden som tillämpades för att analysera artiklarna var kritisk diskursanalys. Kritisk diskursanalys används för textstudier som syftar till att undersöka texten som en social handling och inte enbart se på dem som informationsbärare. Metoden kam användas till att utforska dolda tankemönster eller ideologier bakom texternas utformning. Jag använde mig av Peter Berglez analysverktyg tematisk struktur, schematisk struktur, frånvarande information och närvarande implikationer, lexikal stil samt politisk/historiska kontextualiseringar. Resultatet av min analys påvisade att det- i de undersökta artiklarna- fanns drag av orientaliska och imperialistiska tankestrukturer i diskursen kring Turkiet och den EU. Turkiet tillskrevs två olika roller som bär typiska mönster för ett imperialistiskt och orientaliskt tankemönster. Antingen så beskrevs Turkiet som den ”underlägsna” Orientalen som ständigt försöker efterlikna europén, genom EU, för kontroll över Turkiet och chansen att påverka resten av mellanöstern, genom Turkiet som ett verktyg, eller som den historiskt rotade västerländska tanken om ”turkfaran”, som ständigt utgör ett hot för Europa.