abstract: This dissertation addresses challenges pertaining to multi-junction (MJ) solar cells from material development to device design and characterization. Firstly, among the various methods to improve the energy conversion efficiency of MJ solar cells using, a novel approach proposed recently is to use II-VI (MgZnCd)(SeTe) and III-V (AlGaIn)(AsSb) semiconductors lattice-matched on GaSb or InAs substrates for current-matched subcells with minimal defect densities. CdSe/CdTe superlattices are proposed as a potential candidate for a subcell in the MJ solar cell designs using this material system, and therefore the material properties of the superlattices are studied. The high structural qualities of the superlattices are obtained from high resolution X-ray diffraction measurements and cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy images. The effective bandgap energies of the superlattices obtained from the photoluminescence (PL) measurements vary with the layer thicknesses, and are smaller than the bandgap energies of either the constituent material. Furthermore, The PL peak position measured at the steady state exhibits a blue shift that increases with the excess carrier concentration. These results confirm a strong type-II band edge alignment between CdSe and CdTe. The valence band offset between unstrained CdSe and CdTe is determined as 0.63 eV±0.06 eV by fitting the measured PL peak positions using the Kronig-Penney model. The blue shift in PL peak position is found to be primarily caused by the band bending effect based on self-consistent solutions of the Schrödinger and Poisson equations. Secondly, the design of the contact grid layout is studied to maximize the power output and energy conversion efficiency for concentrator solar cells. Because the conventional minimum power loss method used for the contact design is not accurate in determining the series resistance loss, a method of using a distributed series resistance model to maximize the power output is proposed for the contact design. It is found that the junction recombination loss in addition to the series resistance loss and shadowing loss can significantly affect the contact layout. The optimal finger spacing and maximum efficiency calculated by the two methods are close, and the differences are dependent on the series resistance and saturation currents of solar cells. Lastly, the accurate measurements of external quantum efficiency (EQE) are important for the design and development of MJ solar cells. However, the electrical and optical couplings between the subcells have caused EQE measurement artifacts. In order to interpret the measurement artifacts, DC and small signal models are built for the bias condition and the scan of chopped monochromatic light in the EQE measurements. Characterization methods are developed for the device parameters used in the models. The EQE measurement artifacts are found to be caused by the shunt and luminescence coupling effects, and can be minimized using proper voltage and light biases. Novel measurement methods using a pulse voltage bias or a pulse light bias are invented to eliminate the EQE measurement artifacts. These measurement methods are nondestructive and easy to implement. The pulse voltage bias or pulse light bias is superimposed on the conventional DC voltage and light biases, in order to control the operating points of the subcells and counterbalance the effects of shunt and luminescence coupling. The methods are demonstrated for the first time to effectively eliminate the measurement artifacts. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Electrical Engineering 2012

Orientadores: Cláudia Longo, Fernando Aparecido Sígoli / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Química / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-16T16:48:28Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Silva_EversonThiagoSantosGeroncioda_M.pdf: 49355375 bytes, checksum: f552e7ceab4da2e918af08e239a6a01d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Resumo: O óxido de zinco é um semicondutor tipo-n que apresenta fotoatividade apenas sob radiação UV. Com o objetivo de aproveitar a radiação visível, investigou-se a incorporação de enxofre como dopante em amostras preparadas através da decomposição térmica de ZnS em atmosfera oxidante. O aquecimento de ZnS a 900°C por 30 minutos resultou em ZnO, um pó branco com estruttura de wurtzita, área de superfície de 6 m/g e energia de band gap Eg de 3,07 e 3,04 eV foram obtidas após 30 e 60 minutos a 620 °C; com coloração amarelada e estrutura de wurtzita, apresentaram área superficial de 17m/g. As propriedades eletroquímicas, investigadas em solução aquosa de Na2SO4 para eletrodos de filmes porosos depositados em vidro-FTO, indicaram comportamento de semicondutor tipo-n; sob irradiação com simulador solar, o potencial de circuito aberto negativo, VOC ~ -0,2 V, se manteve estável enquanto a fotocorrente positiva, inicialmente 120 mA cm, diminuiu gradativamente até 6 mA cm, diminuiu gradativamente até 6 mA cm após 4 horas sob irradiação. A baixa estabilidade pode ser atribuída à baixa adesão dos filmes no vidro-FTO e à fotocorrosão do semicondutor. Identificou-se a presença de íons Zn na solução, observou-se que a luz intensifica a dissolução dos óxidos em meio aquoso e que o ZnO é menos suscetível à fotocorrosão. Os eletrodos de ZnO e S:ZnO foram sensibilizados por corante de rutênio e utilizados na montagem de células solares. Os maiores valores de eficiência de conversão de luz em eletricidade, h, foram obtidos para células de 0,25 cm preparadas com eletrodos sensibilizados por 20 minutos e eletrólito líquido; as células de S:ZnO apresentaram corrente de curto circuito de 3,3 mA cm, VOC de 0,7 V e h ~ 1,0%, enquanto que as células de ZnO apresentaram valor similar de VOC, fotocorrente máxima de 0,76 mA/cm e h ~ 0,1%. Em comparação com as células de ZnO, a maior eficiência das células preparadas com ambas as amostras de S:ZnO pode estar relacionada à maior área de superfície e estabilidade mecânica destes filmes quando comparados aos de ZnO. Os estudos também foram realizados para células de S:ZnO preparadas sem o corante; o dispositivo apresentou VOC = 0,53 V, fotocorrente de 0,13 mA/cm e h ~ 0,04%. Embora o S:ZnO apresente Eg de 3,04 eV, com absorção em l < 410 nm, a eficiência de conversão é inferior à obtida na célula com do semicondutor sensibilizado com o corante. Os estudos revelaram que o S:ZnO pode ser utilizado em células solares, porém, devido à fotocorrosão, é necessário investigar meios para aumentar sua estabilidade para que não comprometa a durabilidade dos dispositivos para conversão de energia solar / Abstract: Zinc oxide is an n-type semiconductor that shows photoactivity under UV radiation. Aiming to decrease the zinc oxide band gap and consequently shift its absorption band to visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum, this work has investigated some physical chemical properties of sulfur containing zinc oxide (S:ZnO) samples. The S:ZnO samples were prepared by thermal decomposition of ZnS in oxidizing atmosphere. The heating of ZnS at 900°C for 30 minutes resulted in ZnO, a white powder with wurtzite structure with a surface area of 6 m/g and band gap energy Eg of 3.21 eV. Samples of S:ZnO, obtained by thermal treatment at 620°C for 30 and 60 minutes, have a band gap of 3.04 and 3.07 eV, respectively, yellowish color, wurtzite structure and surface area of 17 m/g. The electrochemical properties were investigated in Na2SO4 aqueous solution for porous film electrodes deposited on FTO-glass. All samples were characterized as an n-type semiconductor; under irradiation with solar simulator. The open potential circuit is negative, VOC ~ -0.2 V and remains stable while the positive photocurrent, initially 120 mA cm, gradually decreases to 6 mA cm after 4 hours of irradiation. The low stability may be attributed to poor adherence of the films on FTO-glass and to photocorrosion of the semiconductor in aqueous medium. The photocorrosion process was confirmed by presence of Zn ion in solution after the irradiation period. It was also observed that the light enhances the dissolution of S:ZnO samples in aqueous solution and that the sulfur free ZnO is less susceptible to the photocorrossion processes. The electrodes of ZnO and S:ZnO samples were sensitized by the ruthenium dye and tested as solar cells. The highest value of conversion efficiency of the light into electricity, h, was obtained for S:ZnO (Eg = 3,04 eV) solar cell that was prepared with 0.25 cm electrodes sensitized by 20 minutes using a liquid electrolyte. Solar cells prepared with S:ZnO (Eg = 3,04 eV) shows short-circuit current of 3.3 mA/cm, VOC of 0.7 V and h ~ 1.0%, while the cells of ZnO showed similar value of VOC, the maximum photocurrent of 0.76 mA/cm and h ~ 0.1%. Compared with the cells of ZnO, the better efficiency of the cells prepared from both S:ZnO samples may be related to the higher surface area and mechanical stability of these films when compared to undoped ZnO. Studies were also conducted for S:ZnO cells prepared without the dye. The prepared device shows VOC = 0.53 V, ISC = 0.13 mA/cmof photocurrent and h ~ 0.04%. Even though the S:ZnO presents a a low band gap value (Eg = 3.04 eV) and absorption at 410 nm, the conversion efficiency is lower than that obtained in dye sensitized cells. Studies revealed that the S:ZnO can be used in solar cells, however, an improvement of its photostability is necessary in order to enhances the durability of the devices applied in conversion of solar energy / Mestrado / Físico-Química / Mestre em Química

Nous avons déterminé l'alignement des niveaux énergétiques d’un solide moléculaire organique, transporteurs de trous, avec un oxyde d'indium dopé à l’étain (ITO), un conducteur transparent. Les molécules étudiées, basées sur une structure dipyranylidène (DIP), diffèrent par leur hétéroatome (O, S et Se). La spectroscopie de photoémission X a été utilisée pour déterminer cet alignement, et nous avons étudié l'orientation moléculaire par spectromicroscopie d'absorption X. Des calculs DFT ont été réalisés pour interpréter les données spectroscopiques. Nous avons constaté la présence d'un transfert de charge, au moins pour les dérivés oxygénés et soufrés. Celui-ci a lieu des molécules vers l’ITO, lorsqu'ils sont en contact intime avec le substrat. Nous avons déterminé la barrière d'injection des trous entre le niveau de Fermi de l’ITO et la HOMO du solide organique. Notre approche expérimentale met l'accent sur la relation entre les propriétés structurelles et les propriétés électroniques. Ces résultats ont été obtenus pendant des runs synchroton en France (SOLEIL), en Italie (ELETTRA) et en Suisse (SLS). / The energy level alignment of hole-transport organic molecular solids with indium tin oxide (ITO), a transparent conducting oxide, has been characterized. The studied molecules, based on the dipyranylidene (DIP) structure, differ by the heteroatom (O, S and Se). Synchrotron photoemission electron spectroscopy has been used to determine the alignment, and we investigated the molecular orientation via X-ray absorption spectromicroscopy. By interpreting spectroscopic data in the light of DFT calculations, we found evidence of the presence of charge transfer from the molecules to the ITO, when they are in intimate contact with the substrate, at least for the O and S-DIPs. The hole injection barrier between the ITO Fermi level and the organic HOMO was obtained. Our experimental approach emphasizes the relationship between structural and electronic properties. These results were obtained during beamtimes in France (SOLEIL), Italy (ELETTRA) and Switzerland (SLS).

La limitation de solvants toxiques halogénés dans les procédés de préparation de matériaux photoactifs est primordiale pour l’industrialisation des cellules solaires organiques. L’objectif de ce travail de thèse a été de préparer des nanoparticules composées de polymère π-conjugué (PCDTBT) et d’accepteur d’électron (PC71BM) dans l’eau ou en milieu alcool. Des particules composites (PCDTBT+ PC71BM) ontété synthétisées avec deux types de stabilisants : un tensio-actif anionique (SDS) et un copolymère à blocs P3HT-b-PEO, ainsi que sans stabilisant. L’intégration de ces nanoparticules dispersées en phase aqueuse dans la couche active de cellules solaires organiques a par exemple permis d’obtenir des rendements de l’ordre de1%. / The replacement of halogenated toxic solvents is fundamental in photoactive material processes to make the organic photovoltaic sector viable. Herein the use of nanoparticles made of π-conjugated polymer (PCDTBT) and electron-acceptor(PC71BM) was targeted in order to allow for instance the control of the phase separation between the two materials. Thus composite particles of PCDTBT and PC71BM have been synthesized using two kinds of stabilizers: an anionic surfactant (SDS) and a block copolymer P3HT-b-PEO, as well as without stabilizer. As an example such nanoparticles were integrated as active layer into photovoltaic device enabling a power conversion efficiency of 0.94% from aqueous based inks.

L´intérêt grandissant pour les bâtiments à haute efficacité énergétique nécessite le développement de nouveaux types d´enveloppe active et multifonctionnelle pouvant couvrir une partie des besoins énergétiques du bâtiment. Les travaux présentés dans cette thèse concernent le développement de capteurs hybrides solaires photovoltaïques thermique pour la production simultanée d´eau chaude sanitaire et d´électricité au sein d´un unique capteur. L’objectif de cette thèse a été dans un premier temps d´analyser la faisabilité et la complexité du concept de capteur hybrides PV-T. Puis, à partir d’un modèle numérique développé spécifiquement pour appuyer la phase de conception du capteur PV-T les raisons expliquant la limitation des performances de tels capteurs ont été analysées, pour enfin proposer différentes solutions innovantes, tant au niveau des cellules solaires que des matériaux du modules PV et du design du capteur final afin d´en augmenter les performances. L´approche développée est par conséquent multi-échelle allant de la prise en compte des phénomènes physiques pris isolément, des propriétés locales des matériaux jusqu’à la mise en œuvre d’un composant et à l´analyse énergétique et exergétique de ses performances dans un environnement numérique dédié au bâtiment. / In the context of greenhouse gas emissions and fossil and fissile resources depletion, solar energy is one of the most promising sources of power. The building sector is one of the biggest energy consumers after the transport and industrial sectors. Therefore, making use of a building’s envelope (façades and roofs) as solar collecting surfaces is a big challenge facing local building needs, specifically in regard to heat, electricity and cooling. However, available surfaces of a building with suitable orientation are always limited, and in many cases a conflict occurs between their use for either heat or electricity production. This is one of the reasons why the concept of a hybrid photovoltaic-thermal (PV-T) collector seems promising. PV-T collectors are multi-energy components that convert solar energy into both electricity and heat. In fact, PV-T collectors make possible the use of the large amount of solar radiation wasted in PV modules as usable heat in a conventional thermal system. Therefore, PV-T collectors represent in principle one of the most efficient ways to use solar energy (co-generation effect). However, such a concept still faces various barriers due to the multidisciplinary knowledge requirements (material, semi-conductors, thermal) and to the complexity of the multiple physical phenomena implied in such concepts.The objective of this PhD work is to carry out a study based on a multi-scale approach that combines both numerical and experimental investigations regarding the feasibility of the concept of hybrid solar collector. The performance of such components is estimated through an appropriate design analysis, and innovative solutions to design an efficient PV-T collector are presented. Based on improved processing methods and improved material properties, an efficient covered PV-T collector has been designed and tested. This collector was made of PV cells connected to the surface of an optimized flat heat exchanger by an improved lamination process and covered on the front side by a static air layer and AR-coated glass pane and on the back side by thermal insulation material. The results showed a significant improvement of both thermal and electrical efficiency in comparison to all previous works on PV-T concepts found in the literature. System simulations were carried out for a hot water system with the software TRNSYS in order to get a clearer statement on the performance of PV-T collectors. The results show that the integration of PV-T collectors can be more advantageous than standard solar components in regard to thermodynamic considerations (energy and exergy) and environmental considerations (CO2 and primary energy saving).

Solar cells convert sunlight into electrical energy using the photo effect. With a mar-ket share of 60%, multicrystalline silicon (mc-Si) is the most frequently used absorber material. Standard mc-Si ingots are directionally solidified in a fused silica (SiO2) crucible, which exhibits a silicon nitride (Si3N4) inner coating. After the entire raw material has been melted, the nucleation takes place on the Si3N4 inner coating at the bottom of the crucible. This results in an inhomogeneous initial grain structure and an increased fraction of dislocation clusters in the upper part of the ingot, which decrease the quality of standard mc-Si. Therefore, the global goal is the development of a cost-effective technology that reduces the formation of clusters and enhances the quality of mc-Si ingots. One way of achieving that goal is to produce the so-called \"high performance multi crystalline silicon\" (HPM-Si). During the directional solidification silicon raw material remains unmelted at the bottom of the SiO2 crucible, whereby crystallization does start on the silicon feedstock a few millimeters above the crucible bottom. Compared to standard mc-Si, a finer grained structure with many small grains is formed, which are separated by so-called random grain boundaries. Since the movement of dislocations across this grain boundary type has rarely been observed, the risk of formation of dislocation clusters, which have a negative impact on the efficiency of solar cells, is greatly reduced for HPM-Si. However, the disadvantage of the HPM-Si compared to the mc-Si is the yield loss resulting from the unmelted raw material at the crucible bottom. Hence, the aim of the present work is to produce mc-Si with a fine-grained structure in combination with a high fraction of random grain boundaries without the disad-vantage of yield loss. In order to investigate the grain structure in dependence of the nucleation conditions G1 ingots having a mass of 14.5 kg and dimensions of 220x220x130 mm³ were directional solidified in a furnace. The analysis of the grain structure with respect to the grain size, grain orientation and the random grain boundary length fraction and the comparison with the HPM-Si reference crystal took place on horizontal wafers with a thickness of 3mm. One possibility to influence the grain structure of mc-Si could be the variation of the cooling conditions before the start of crystallization at the crucible bottom. In a first series of experiments, a gas-flowed cooling plate, positioned below the crucible, was used. An increased gas flow increases the axial heat flow downwards and the cooling rate below the crucible bottom in the same direction. The detected cooling rate, measured by a thermocouple in the silicon melt 5 mm above the crucible bottom, varied in a range between 0.06-1.5 K/min. An increased cooling rate increases the supercooling, with a maximum of 2K. The analysis of the grain structure shows that a reduction in the cooling rate in combination with the lowest supercooling minimizes the average grain size and increases the fraction of random grain boundaries. However, an HPM-Si like grain structure (grain size and fraction of random grain boundaries comparable to HPM-Si) could not completely produced. Furthermore, due to the extended process time, the wafer yield is reduced, whereby the reduction of the cooling rate is not a preferable method for the industrial process. In a second experimental series, which took place under constant cooling rates, the influence of an additional nucleation layer on the initial grain structure was investigated. For this purpose, the additional nucleation layer was applied on the already existing Si3N4 inner coating on the crucible bottom. In order to adjust a HPM-Si like grain structure, the contact angle of the silicon melt on the additional nucleation layer should be lower than on the Si3N4 inner coating. The theoretical basis for this hypothesis is the relationship between the contact angle and the nucleation energy, which states that a reduced contact angle lowers the nucleation energy and can ultimately lead to more nuclei. Furthermore, in order to avoid melting, the additional nucleation layer must have a higher melting point than silicon. Suitable materials for the application as a foreign seed sample are SiC, SiO2 and Al2O3, which are used in the form of particles with different sizes. The production of the additional nucleation layer was carried out by a spraying as well as by an embedding procedure. These layers exhibit different thermal conductivity as well as surface roughness. Embedded nucleation layers generate higher roughness values than sprayed nucleation layers. The analysis of the grain structure identified the surface roughness as the main influencing factor on the initial grain size. While an increased surface roughness (Rq>100μm) results in a fine-grained structure (average grain size: <2mm²) comparable to HPM-Si, the average grain size increases (>2 mm²) with a reduced surface roughness (Rq<100μm). However, the analysis of the grain boundary relationship shows that the fraction of random grain boundaries does not correlate with the average grain size. Only a ma-terial dependency was detected. All SiO2 nucleation layers generate an increased fraction of random grain boundaries, comparable to the HPM-Si material. In contrast, the fraction of random grain boundaries was reduced for all SiC nucleation layers. This result is probably established with the different thermal conductivities of the used materials. The increased thermal conductivity of the sample with the SiC nucleation layers increases the cooling rate, promoting dendritic growth. In contrast the lower thermal conductivity of the SiO2 nucleation layers reduces the cooling rate and dendritic growth is suppressed. Since dendrites exhibit a Σ3 grain boundary relationship in the center, the fraction of this grain boundary type increases for SiC nucleation layers and the fraction of random grain boundaries decreases. In this thesis, various possibilities for influencing the grain structure have been pre-sented. A SiO2 nucleation layer with a roughness value Rq> 200μm represents an industrially relevant solution for the production of mc-Si with comparable properties to the HPM-Si without the disadvantages of yield loss. Hence, it was possible to in-crease the yield with comparable material quality, whereby the production costs could be reduced. Some first crucible manufacturers have already transferred the use of the SiO2 nucleation layers on top of the already existing Si3N4 inner coating at the crucible bottom to production.

During the last years perovskite materials have taken the photovoltaic community by storm, bringing promises of solar cells with efficiencies comparable to conventional silicon devices but at a lower price. However perovskite solar cells so far are facing two main obstacles, they are unstable in the presence of air, moisture and heat and they are usually toxic due to being based on lead-halide materials. This has spurred investigations into alternative materials with similar properties but without the mentioned drawbacks. Just next to Pb in the periodic table is bismuth (Bi) with just one more electron in its outer-shell, Bi however is less toxic. In this work the perovskite derived compounds of Ag-Bi-I and Cu-Bi-I are characterized and their properties as light absorbing material in solar cell devices are investigated. Devices are prepared by preparing Ag-Bi-I and Cu-Bi-I solutions which are then spin-coated on top of a mesoporous TiO2. A conducting polymer, P3HT, was then deposited and serve as hole transport material. For Ag-Bi-I, the molar ratios of AgI:BiI3= 1:2 and 2:1 were observed with SEM to form homogeneous crystal films with one dominating crystal phase, which by XRD could be determined to most likely have formed a cubic AgBi2I7 crystal structure for the 1:2 ratio and a hexagonal Ag2BiI5 crystal structure for the 2:1 ratio. The Cu-Bi-I materials were not successfully synthesized to form homogeneous films with a dominating crystal phase, although several molar ratios were investigated. All investigated compositions of both Cu and Ag devices showed to in principle work as light absorbing materials, the best Ag-Bi-I device showing a PCE of 1.92%, for the 2:1 ratio, while the Cu-Bi-I devices at best reached 0.32% for a ratio of 1:1. XPS measurements were carried out with a classical in-house XPS using an Al K X-ray source of 1486.7 eV as well as at the Diamond Light Source (UK) synchrotron facility using photon energies of 758 eV and 2200 eV so that a depth resolution of the composition could be observed. Because of their inhomogeneous crystal formation, XPS couldn’t give much useful quantitative information regarding the Cu devices. For Ag devices it was observed that the stoichiometry at the extreme surface deviated from that predicted by XRD, but deeper into the surface the relative ratio of elements approach the predicted ones, hinting towards a different structure at the outermost surface or a lot of surface defects. For all samples, two types of bismuth atoms were observed, metallic (Bi0) as well as a cationic (Bi+x), the later corresponding to Bi atoms which are partaking in the crystal bond. The ratio of metallic to cationic Bi was observed to decrease notably just a few nm below the extreme surface. The effect of the high presence of metallic Bi on final device performance was not concluded with certainty but not believed to be positive. By varying the annealing temperature, after spin coating the light absorber solution on the TiO2, it was observed that lower temperature resulted in a lower ratio of metallic Bi. As final conclusions, it was said that the synthesis method of Cu-Bi-I needs to be improved before those materials can be studied further. The synthesis of Ag-Bi-I is showing much more promise and one can start looking into further optimizing their final device structure to boost efficiency. Both Cu-Bi-I and Ag-Bi-I devices are relatively simple, cheap and energy efficient (with annealing temperatures around 150C) to produce, great aspects for solar cells. UVVis measurements showed they have band gaps around 1.6-1.7 eV which makes them a great potential material for use in tandem solar cells together with a semiconductor of lower band gap such as silicon.

Cette thèse s’insère dans un projet d’élaboration et de caractérisation des cellules photovoltaïques organiques classiques et inverses, plus précisément il s’agit d’améliorer les performances des cellules via des couches tampons anodiques et cathodiques originales. Nous avons commencé d’améliorer les couches tampons cathodiques avec différents donneurs d’électrons: phtalocyanine de cuivre CuPc, subphtalocyanine SubPc et dérivés de thiophène organiques. Dans le premier cas de donneur d’électrons (CuPc), nous avons mis en évidence l’effet d’une fine couche d’un composé de césium, utilisée comme couche tampon cathodique dans des cellules inverses, sur la collecte des électrons après un traitement thermique. Nous avons montré aussi que la couche tampon cathodique hybride, Alq3 (9nm) / Ca (3nm) améliore les performances des cellules quelque soit le donneur d’électrons et sans nécessité de recuit. Dans le cas de drivés de thiophène, nous avons montré comment la morphologie de surface des couches organiques peut influencer les performances des cellules photovoltaïques organiques. Et dans le cas de SubPc utilisé dans des cellules inverses, nous avons étudié l’effet de la vitesse de dépôt de la couche SubPc sur sa morphologie. Concernant l’amélioration de la couche tampon anodique, nous avons étudié des cellules classiques à base SubPc et du pentathiophene (5T). Après l’optimisation de l’épaisseur des donneurs d’électrons, nous avons montré que la bicouche MoO3 (3 nm) / Cul (1,5 nm) utilisée comme couche tampon anodique, permet d'améliorer les performances des cellules, quelque soit le donneur d’électrons. Dans le cas du SubPc, nous avons obtenu un rendement qui approche de 5%. / This thesis concerns elaboration and characterization of classical and inverse organic photovoltaic cells, specifically improving the anodic and cathodic buffer layers. We started by improving the cathode buffer layers with different electron donors: copper phthalocyanine CuPc, subphtalocyanine SubPc and thiophene derivatives (BSTV and BOTV). In the first case of electron donor (CuPc), we highlighted the effect of the thin layer of cesium compound, used as a cathodic buffer layer in inverse cells, on the collection of electrons after heat treatment.We have also shown that the hybrid cathodic buffer layer, Alq3 (9 nm) / Ca (3nm) improves the cell performance whatever the electron donor without annealing. In the case of thiophene derivatives, we have shown how the morphology of the organic layers surface can influence the performance of organic photovoltaic cells. In the case of SubPc used in inverse cells, we studied the effect of the deposition rate of the layer on the morphology of SubPc surface.Regarding the improvement of the anodic buffer layers, we investigated those based on the SubPc and pentathiophene (5T) in classical cells. After optimization of the electron donors thickness, we have shown that the bilayer MoO3 (3 nm) / CuI (1.5 nm) used as an anodic buffer layer, improves cell performances, whatever the electron donor. In the case of SubPc, we obtained a efficiency approaching 5%.

Ce travail s’intéresse aux cellules solaires multi-transitions. Deux semiconducteurs à niveaux subbandgap : un highly mismatched alloy, le GaAsPN, et un absorbeur à boites quantiques. Les états subbandgap permettent de modifier l’énergie de gap ou de créer une bande intermédiaire au milieu du gap. En premier lieu, une introduction de la cellule solaire par l’étude de luminescence est présentée. Des liens entre luminescence et propriétés électriques sont établis, et les limites thermodynamiques de l’efficacité des dispositifs multi-transitions sont explicitées. Enfin, une méthode optique de caractérisation des cellules solaires est démontrée. La première partie expérimentale de la thèse est dédiée au développement d’une top cell en GaAsPN en accord de maille avec une bottom cell en Silicium. Des simulations numériques ont mis en évidence les difficultés à surmonter pour ce type de matériau. La dynamique des porteurs a été étudiée par photoluminescence en régime permanent et résolue en temps. Ces mesures ont mis en évidence que les absorbeurs crûs souffraient d’états fortement localisés, majoritairement dus à des clusters d’azote. Ces états nous ont permis en revanche d’étudier les propriétés de bande intermédiaire de cet alliage. Enfin, une méthode optique de caractérisation, adaptée aux IBSCs et à la mise en évidence des deux mécanismes clés de ce concept (two-step two-photon absorption et la préservation de la tension). Cette méthode a été appliquée à deux candidats pour les IBSCs, un absorbeur à multi-puits quantiques et un à boîtes quantiques. Les résultats montrent que l’absorbeur à boîtes quantiques présente un comportement compatible avec les IBSCs. / This thesis deals with the multi-transition solar cells by studying two subband gap localised states materials: one highly mismatched alloy, GaAsPN, and one multi-stacked quantum dots heterostructure. These subband gap states give the possibility to tune the band gap energy or create two photon transitions inside a single the absorber. In a first part, a radiance based introduction of the solar cell is presented. Links between radiances and electrical properties are pointed out. From this analysis, the thermodynamic limits of the single and multiple transition solar cells are derived and key mechanisms for multi-transition solar cells are identified. A universal optical characterisation method for probing electrical properties of solar cells is displayed. The first experimental part of this thesis was dedicated to the development of a GaAsPN based pin top cell lattice matched with a Silicon bottom cell. Numerical simulations have been carried out. Carrier dynamics has been studied by steady-state and time-resolved photoluminescence, with the conclusion that the GaAsPN we grew still suffer from multiple strongly localised states below the band gap, mainly due to N-clusters. Finally, we have taken advantages of the strong carrier localisation for a use as an intermediate band solar cell. Eventually, a quantitative optical characterisation method was developed in order to evaluate the potential of an absorber as an IBSC. The two key processes, the two-step two-photon absorption and the voltage preservation, can be widely investigate through it. This method has been applied to two IBSC candidates, a MQW and a MSQD absorbers. The MSQD cell have shown IB compatibility.

Ljusbommar/ljusridåer är ett vanligt säkerhetsskydd på dagens industrier, där arbete görs vid rörliga delar.  Det ställs höga säkerhetskrav på ljusbommar/ljusridåer. När ett skydd bryts behöver det återställas och detta görs vanligtvis med en tryckknapp. Detta system medför ett hinder i situationer där truckar används, eftersom att arbetaren behöver kliva ur trucken för att göra återställning av skyddet. Ett trådlöst system av återställningen är lösningen på problemet, men det ställs krav på ett sådant system. Ett öppet lasersystem har valts att undersökas om det skulle kunna uppfylla de krav som ställs. För att testa om ett öppet lasersystem skulle kunna användas togs en prototyp fram. Prototypen bestod av en lasermodul som sändare och en solcell som mottagare. Systemet styrdes av två stycken mikrokontrollers som kommunicerade via UART. Prototypen testades för hur stabilt systemet var mot ljusstörningar och inom vilket område det var begränsat. Det visade sig att den prototyp som tagits fram inte fungerade när störningsljus med frekvenser i sig belyste mottagaren. Prototypens områdesbegränsning visade sig var alldeles för stor. Slutsatsen av undersökningen var att det är teoretiskt möjligt att byta ut knappen mot ett öppet lasersystem, dock inte med den prototyp som togs fram. Det behövs istället en prototyp som måste bearbetas mer för att kunna uppfylla de krav som skulle ställas för trådlösåterställning av ljusbommar/ljusridåer. / Light beams / light curtains are a common safety guard on today's industries, where work is done on moving parts. High safety requirements are imposed on light beams / light curtains. When a protection is broken, it needs to be reset and this is usually done with a pushbutton. This system in which truckers are used, a problem arises, because the worker needs to get out of the truck to repair the guard. A wireless recovery system is the solution to the problem, but it needs to meet high standards. An open laser system has been chosen to be investigated if it could meet the requirements. To test if an open laser system could be used, a prototype was taken. The prototype consists of a laser module as a transmitter and a solar cell as a receiver. The system is controlled by two microcontrollers communicating via UART. The prototype was tested for how stable the system was and in which area it was limited. It turned out that the prototype produced did not work when the interference light with frequencies in itself illuminated the receiver. The prototype area restriction proved to be too wide in the area. The conclusion of the survey was that it is theoretically possible to replace the button with an open laser system. However, not with the prototype that was presented, but with a prototype that has to be processed more to meet the requirements for wireless reset of light bombs / light curtains.