This thesis investigates the electrical and electrochemical properties and the long-term stability of anodes of the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC). A model is suggested, which describes the impedance spectra of symmetrical anode cells. According to this, the series resistance in the spectra is caused by the resistance of the electrolyte (YSZ), ohmic parts of the anodes, which are described as porous electrodes, and by the partial contacting of the anodes. A major contribution to it is provided by the nickel matrix in the anodes. The high frequency relaxation in the spectra is assigned to the transfer reaction, the low frequency to a gas diffusion inhibition along the gas supply channels. The degradation of the symmetrical anode cells, which has been observed in long-term experiments, is ascribed to a degradation of the electrolyte material, of the transfer reaction, of the nickel matrix in the anodes and of the contact resistance between the anodes and the current collecting nickel grids. The degradation rate of the last two depends on the gas composition. A model for the observed behaviour in time is presented. / Diese Arbeit untersucht die elektrischen und elektrochemischen Eigenschaften und die Langzeitbeständigkeit der Anoden von Festoxid-Brennstoffzellen (SOFC). Ein Modell wird vorgestellt, mit dem die Impedanzspektren symmetrischer Anodenzellen beschrieben werden können. Demnach ist der Serienwiderstand in den Spektren verursacht durch den Widerstand des Elektrolyten (YSZ), ohmsche Anteile in den Anoden, die als poröse Elektroden beschrieben werden, und durch die partielle Kontaktierung der Anoden. Maßgebliche Beiträge liefert hier die Nickelmatrix in den Anoden. Die hochfrequente Relaxation in den Spektren wird der Durchtrittsreaktion, die niederfrequente einer Gasdiffusionshemmung entlang der Gasversorgungskanäle zugeordnet. Die in Langzeitversuchen beobachtete Degradation der symmetrischen Anondenzellen wird zurückgeführt auf eine Degradation des Elektrolytmaterials, der Durchtrittsreaktion, der Nickelmatrix in den Anoden und des Kontaktwiderstandes zwischen den Anoden und den stromabnehmenden Nickelnetzen. Die Degradation der beiden letzteren ist in ihrer Rate abhängig von der Gaszusammensetzung. Ein Modell für das beobachtete zeitliche Verhalten wird vorgestellt.

Το ενδιαφέρον για την ανάπτυξη νέων καθοδικών ηλεκτροδίων για χρήση τους σε κυψέλες καυσίμου στερεού ηλεκτρολύτη (SOFCs) ενδιάμεσων θερμοκρασιών (600-800oC) γίνεται ολοένα και μεγαλύτερο, δεδομένου ότι η απόδοση των συμβατικών καθόδων La1-xSrxMnO3-δ δεν είναι ικανοποιητική σε θερμοκρασίες χαμηλότερες των 800oC. Περοβσκιτικά υλικά με γενικό τύπο La1-x-ySrxCozFe1-zO3-δ αποτελούν υποσχόμενη εναλλακτική λύση, εξαιτίας της υψηλής ηλεκτρονικής και ιοντικής τους αγωγιμότητας. Η μικτή τους αυτή αγωγιμότητα έχει ως αποτέλεσμα τη διεύρυνση της ζώνης αντίδρασης και την ταχύτερη κινητική της αντίδρασης αναγωγής του οξυγόνου. Στην παρούσα εργασία πραγματοποιήθηκε ηλεκτροχημικός χαρακτηρισμός με φασματοσκοπία σύνθετης αντίστασης, μετρήσεις πυκνότητας ρεύματος-υπέρτασης και κυκλική βολταμετρία, περοβσκιτικών καθοδικών ηλεκτροδίων La1-x-ySrxCo2Fe0.8O3-δ και La1-x-ySrxFeO3-δ σε επαφή με CGO/YSZ. Από την ανάλυση των πειραμάτων σύνθετης αντίστασης προέκυψε ως κύριο συμπέρασμα ότι ανάλογα με τη θερμοκρασία, τη μερική πίεση οξυγόνου και την πόλωση, τα χαρακτηριστικά σύνθετης αντίστασης του ηλεκτροδίου La0.8Sr0.2Co0.2Fe0.8O3-δ καθορίζονται από μέχρι τρεις διαφορετικές διεργασίες, οι οποίες αναγνωρίστηκαν ως αγωγή ιόντων οξυγόνου διά του ηλεκτροδίου, διαφασική μεταφορά φορτίου με συμμετοχή ατομικού οξυγόνου και διάχυση O2 στην αέρια φάση. Με ανάλυση μετρήσεων πυκνότητας ρεύματος ως προς την υπέρταση και το δυναμικό του ηλεκτροδίου, προσδιορίστηκαν επίσης, οι τιμές των ηλεκτροκινητικών παραμέτρων (πυκνότητα ρεύματος ανταλλαγής, συντελεστές μεταφοράς) που αφορούν στην ηλεκτροχημική αντίδραση αναγωγής του οξυγόνου και η αγωγιμότητα πόλωσης ως συνάρτηση του εφαρμοζόμενου δυναμικού για διάφορες θερμοκρασίες. Η τεχνική της κυκλικής βολταμετρίας εφαρμόστηκε για χαρακτηρισμό των παραπάνω περοβσκιτικών ηλεκτροδίων (x = 0.2; 0.4 και y = 0; 0.02), προκειμένου να αναγνωριστούν οι ηλεκτροχημικές διεργασίες που λαμβάνουν χώρα υπό συνθήκες πόλωσης. Η εμφάνιση κορυφών ρεύματος στα κυκλοβολταμογραφήματα, σε μία ευρεία περιοχή θερμοκρασιών, μερικών πιέσεων οξυγόνου και ρυθμών σάρωσης του δυναμικού, συσχετίστηκε με ηλεκτροχημικές αντιδράσεις αναγωγής-οξείδωσης ιόντων σιδήρου ή/και κοβαλτίου αλλά και με οξείδωση-αναγωγή ειδών οξυγόνου. Τέλος, αξιολογήθηκε η καταλυτική ενεργότητα περοβσκιτικών οξειδίων με γενικό τύπο La1-x-ySrxCozFe1-zO3-δ για πλήρη οξείδωση CO και CH4. Ως κύριο συμπέρασμα προέκυψε ότι τα περοβσκιτικά οξείδια LSCF παρουσιάζουν υψηλότερη καταλυτική ενεργότητα σε σχέση με τα οξείδια LSF. / Recently, there has been a lot of focus on the development of new cathode materials for use in intermediate temperature (600–800°C) solid oxide fuel cells, since the conventional cathodes based on La1–xSrxMnO3–δ do not perform satisfactorily below 800°C. Iron- and cobalt-containing perovskites La1–x–ySrxCozFe1–zO3–δ have recently attracted significant attention as promising alternative cathode materials for IT-SOFCs, mainly due to their high mixed (electronic and ionic) conductivity, which results in enlargement of the available electrochemically active area, and their high oxygen surface exchange coefficients. In the present work electrochemical characterisation was carried out on porous La1–x–ySrxCo0.2Fe0.8O3–δ (LSCF) and La1–x–ySrxFeO3–δ (LSF) cathode electrodes deposited via screen-printing on the CGO layer of a CGO/YSZ electrolyte, using AC impedance spectroscopy, current density vs. electrode overpotential measurements, and cyclic voltammetry. From the analysis of the experimental results it was concluded that depending on temperature, oxygen partial pressure and polarization, the impedance characteristics of the La0.8Sr0.2Co0.2Fe0.8O3-δ electrode are determined by up to three different processes, which were identified as ionic conduction in the electrode bulk, interfacial charge transfer and gas phase diffusion, respectively. The values of the electrokinetic parameters of the electrochemical oxygen reduction as well as the polarization conductance, were determined as a function of the applied electrode potential at different temperatures, based on the analysis of current density vs. electrode overpotential measurements. Cyclic voltammetry technique was used in order to identify the electrochemical processes taking place under cathodic polarization on the basis of differences in the features of the cyclic voltammograms with changing conditions. Depending on the electrode, temperature, oxygen partial pressure and potential sweep rate, the appearance of current peaks was related to the electrochemical redox of B-sites and concomitant stoichiometry change as well as to the competing reaction of electrochemical oxygen redox, taking also into account the competitive action of chemical reactions which may occur in the presence of O2. Finally, the present work aimed to the assessment of the catalytic activity of these perovskite oxides for CO and CH4 combustion and it was found that LSCF perovskites were more catalytically active than LSF perovskites.

Au cours des dernières décennies, les piles à combustible à oxyde solide sont devenues un dispositif prometteur de conversion d’énergie. Ceci est dû principalement à leur efficacité de conversion d’énergie, leur flexibilité du choix du carburant et leurs faibles émissions de polluants. Cependant, la température de fonctionnement élevée de cette variante de piles à combustible induit divers problèmes d’endommagement et de fissuration. Par conséquent, l’optimisation de leur durée de vie reste un problème à résoudre. Dans cette thèse, une approche numérique combinant la méthode des éléments finis (FEM) et la méthode des éléments finis étendus (XFEM) est développée. Le but est de modéliser le problème multi-physique comportant: l’écoulement du fluide, le transfert de la chaleur, le transfert de masse, les réactions électrochimiques et thermomécanique dans une unité de pile à combustible. Dans un premier temps, pour prédire la distribution de la température et des espèces dans le milieu poreux des électrodes, un modèle de Darcy-Brinkman (DB) couplant l’écoulement du gaz, le transfert de chaleur et le transport de masse est développé. Ensuite, la méthode XFEM est introduite pour modéliser la présence des fissures dans les électrodes. Le modèle DB-XFEM combiné est utilisé par la suite pour étudier l’effet de l’écoulement du fluide, le transfert de chaleur et des propriétés thermomécaniques du matériau sur la nucléation et la propagation des fissures. Enfin, un modèle électrochimique (EC) est développé et combiné avec le modèle DB pour étudier les performances de conversion d’énergie dans la cellule de la pile à combustible. / Over the last few decades, Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) has been a promising energy conversion device that has drawn a lot of attention due to its high energy conversion efficiency, fuel flexibility and low pollutant emission. However, as the high operating temperature leads to complex material problems in the SOFC, the energy conversion efficiency and life expectancy optimization remain as the challenging issues regarding the design and manufacturing of fuel cells. In this thesis, a numerical approach based on a combination of Finite Element (FEM) and eXtended Finite Element (XFEM) methods is developed to model the coupled fluid flow, heat and mass transfer as well as the electrochemical reactions with thermo-mechanical process in the SOFC unit. At first, to predict the temperature and species distribution within the porous electrodes of a SOFC unit, a Darcy-Brinkman (DB) model coupling the gas flow, heat and mass transport in porous media is developed. Then, the XFEM is introduced to deal with the presence of crack in the porous electrodes. The combined DB-XFEM model is used to investigate the effect of fluid flow, heat transfer, porous material properties and the material anisotropy on the onset of crack growth and the propagation path in the SOFC unit. At last, an electrochemistry (EC) model is developed and combined with the DB model to couple the electrochemical reactions to energy and mass transfer in the SOFC. With the DB-EC model, the cell energy conversion performances are studied.

Perovskite based materials have great potentials for various energy applications and the search for new materials for uses in SOFCs has largely been concentrated to this class of compounds. In this search, we have studied perovskite phases in the system La2Co1+z(Ti1-xMgx)1-zO6, with 0  x 0.9 and z = 0.0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6. Crystal structures were characterized by XRD and, for selected compositions, also by NPD and SAED. They exhibit with increasing x, as well as increasing z, a progressive increase in symmetry from monoclinic to orthorhombic to rhombohedral. The main focus in this work has been on the investigation of structure-property relations for compositions with 0.0 x 0.5 and z = 0. The nominal oxidation state of Co increases for these with increasing x, from Co2+ for x = 0 to Co3+ for x = 0.5. Magnetic measurements and XANES studies showed that the average spin state of Co changes linearly with increasing x, up to x = 0.5, in accordance with varying proportions of Co with two fixed oxidation states, i.e. Co2+ and Co3+. The data suggests that the Co3+ ions have an IS spin state or a mixture of LS and HS spin states for all compositions with nominally only Co2+ and Co3+ ions, possibly with the exception of the composition with x = 0.1, 0.2 and z = 0, for which the data indicate that the spin state might be HS. The XANES data indicate furthermore that for the perovskite phases with z = 0 and x > 0.5, which in the absence of O atom vacancies contain formally Co4+, the highest oxidation state of Co is Co3+, implying that the substitution of Ti4+ by Mg2+ for x ³ 0.5 effects an oxidation of O2- ions rather than an oxidation of Co3+ ions. The thermal expansion was found to increase nearly linearly with increasing oxidation state of Co. This agrees well with findings in previous studies and is attributable to an increase in the ionic radius of Co3+ ions with increasing temperature, due to a thermal excitation from a LS to IS or LS/HS spin states. High temperature electronic conductivity measurements indicate that the electronic conductivity increases with an increase of both relative and absolute amount of Co3+. The latter can be attributed to an increase in the number of Co-O-Co connections. Additional high temperature magnetic measurements for selected samples, whose susceptibilities did not follow a Curie law behaviour up to room temperature, showed effective magnetic moments that did approach plateaus even at high temperatures (900 K). Interpretations of these data are, however, hindered by the samples losing oxygen during the applied heating-cooling cycle. The present study has shown that the investigated system is suitable for further studies, of more fundamental character, which could provide further insight of the structure-property relationships that depend on the oxidation state of Co. / Studies of cobalt based perovskites for cathode materials in solid oxide fuel cells.

This thesis investigates the electrical and electrochemical properties and the long-term stability of anodes of the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC). A model is suggested, which describes the impedance spectra of symmetrical anode cells. According to this, the series resistance in the spectra is caused by the resistance of the electrolyte (YSZ), ohmic parts of the anodes, which are described as porous electrodes, and by the partial contacting of the anodes. A major contribution to it is provided by the nickel matrix in the anodes. The high frequency relaxation in the spectra is assigned to the transfer reaction, the low frequency to a gas diffusion inhibition along the gas supply channels. The degradation of the symmetrical anode cells, which has been observed in long-term experiments, is ascribed to a degradation of the electrolyte material, of the transfer reaction, of the nickel matrix in the anodes and of the contact resistance between the anodes and the current collecting nickel grids. The degradation rate of the last two depends on the gas composition. A model for the observed behaviour in time is presented. / Diese Arbeit untersucht die elektrischen und elektrochemischen Eigenschaften und die Langzeitbeständigkeit der Anoden von Festoxid-Brennstoffzellen (SOFC). Ein Modell wird vorgestellt, mit dem die Impedanzspektren symmetrischer Anodenzellen beschrieben werden können. Demnach ist der Serienwiderstand in den Spektren verursacht durch den Widerstand des Elektrolyten (YSZ), ohmsche Anteile in den Anoden, die als poröse Elektroden beschrieben werden, und durch die partielle Kontaktierung der Anoden. Maßgebliche Beiträge liefert hier die Nickelmatrix in den Anoden. Die hochfrequente Relaxation in den Spektren wird der Durchtrittsreaktion, die niederfrequente einer Gasdiffusionshemmung entlang der Gasversorgungskanäle zugeordnet. Die in Langzeitversuchen beobachtete Degradation der symmetrischen Anondenzellen wird zurückgeführt auf eine Degradation des Elektrolytmaterials, der Durchtrittsreaktion, der Nickelmatrix in den Anoden und des Kontaktwiderstandes zwischen den Anoden und den stromabnehmenden Nickelnetzen. Die Degradation der beiden letzteren ist in ihrer Rate abhängig von der Gaszusammensetzung. Ein Modell für das beobachtete zeitliche Verhalten wird vorgestellt.

Non-stoichiometric strontium iron oxide is described by an abbreviated formula SrFeOx (2.5 ≤ x ≤ 3.0) exhibits a variety of interesting physical and chemical properties over a broad range of temperatures and in different gaseous environments. The oxide contains a mixture of iron in the trivalent and the rare tetravalent state. The material at elevated temperature is a mixed oxygen conductor and it, or its derivatives,can have practical applications in oxygen conducting devices such as pressure driven oxygen generators, partial oxidation reactors in electrodes for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC). ¶ This thesis examines the behaviour of the material at ambient and elevated temperatures using a broad spectrum of solid state experimental techniques such as: x-ray and neutron powder diffraction,thermogravimetric and calorimetric methods,scanning electron microscopy and Mossbauer spectroscopy. Changes in the oxide were induced using conventional thermal treatment in various atmospheres as well as mechanical energy (ball milling). The first experimental chapter examines the formation of the ferrite from a mixture of reactants.It describes the chemical reactions and phase transitions that lead to the formation of the oxide. Ball milling of the reactants prior to annealing was found to eliminate transient phases from the reaction route and to increase the kinetics of the reaction at lower temperatures. Examination of the thermodynamics of iron oxide (hematite) used for the reactions led to a new route of synthesis of the ferrite frommagnetite and strontium carbonate.This chapter also explores the possibility of synthesis of the material at room temperature using ball milling. ¶ The ferrite strongly interacts with the gas phase so its behaviour was studied under different pressures of oxygen and in carbon dioxide.The changes in ferrite composition have an equilibrium character and depend on temperature and oxygen concentration in the atmosphere. Variations of the oxygen content x were described as a function of temperature and oxygen partial pressure, the results were used to plot an equilibrium composition diagram. The heat of oxidation was also measured as a function of temperature and oxygen partial pressure. ¶ Interaction of the ferrite with carbon dioxide below a critical temperature causes decomposition of the material to strontium carbonate and SrFe12O19 . The critical temperature depends on the partial pressure of CO2 and above the critical temperature the carbonate and SrFe12O19 are converted back into the ferrite.The resulting SrFe12O19 is very resistant towards carbonation and the thermal carbonation reaction does not lead to a complete decomposition of SrFeOx to hematite and strontium carbonate. ¶ The thermally induced oxidation and carbonation reactions cease at room temperature due to sluggish kinetics however,they can be carried out at ambient temperature using ball milling.The reaction routes for these processes are different from the thermal routes.The mechanical oxidation induces two or more concurrent reactions which lead to samples containing two or more phases. The mechanical carbonation on the other hand produces an unknown metastable iron carbonate and leads a complete decomposition of the ferrite to strontiumcarbonate and hematite. ¶ Thermally and mechanically oxidized samples were studied using Mossbauer spectroscopy. The author proposes a new interpretation of the Sr4Fe4O11 (x=2.75) and Sr8Fe8O23 (x=2.875)spectra.The interpretation is based on the chemistry of the compounds and provides a simpler explanation of the observed absorption lines.The Mossbauer results froma range of compositions revealed the roomtemperature phase behaviour of the ferrite also examined using x-ray diffraction. ¶ The high-temperature crystal structure of the ferrite was examined using neutron powder diffraction.The measurements were done at temperatures up to 1273K in argon and air atmospheres.The former atmosphere protects Sr2Fe2O5 (x=2.5) against oxidation and the measurements in air allowed variation of the composition of the oxide in the range 2.56 ≤ x ≤ 2.81. Sr2Fe2O5 is an antiferromagnet and undergoes phase transitions to the paramagnetic state at 692K and from the orthorhombic to the cubic structure around 1140K.The oxidized formof the ferrite also undergoes a transition to the high-temperature cubic form.The author proposes a new structural model for the cubic phase based on a unit cell with the Fm3c symmetry. The new model allows a description of the high-temperature cubic form of the ferrite as a solid solution of the composition end members.The results were used to draw a phase diagramfor the SrFeOx system. ¶ The last chapter summarizes the findings and suggests directions for further research.

Le développement actuel des piles à combustible SOFC fonctionnant à température intermédiaire suppose l'optimisation des méthodes de synthèse et de mise en forme pour les matériaux nouveaux développés au cours des dernières années. En effet, les propriétés électrochimiques de ces dispositifs sont étroitement liées aux caractéristiques des poudres de départ ainsi qu'à la microstructure des électrodes (ou de l'électrolyte) après leur mise en forme. Une amélioration significative des dites propriétés peut être obtenue par la nanostructuration des matériaux. Dans ce contexte, ce travail de thèse est consacré à l’élaboration du matériau de cathode Nd2NiO4+d ainsi que du matériau d'électrolyte Ce1-xAxO2-d. Les méthodes mises en œuvre sont la synthèse de nanopoudres en milieux éthanol/eau supercritiques et par voie pyrosol ainsi que le dépôt de couches minces en milieu CO2 supercritique. Les objets obtenus ont enfin été caractérisés par spectroscopie d'impédance électrochimique afin de quantifier leur performance pour l’application SOFC. / The ongoing development of Intermediate Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells implies the optimization of the synthesis and deposition methods for the new materials developed these past years. Indeed, electrochemical properties of these materials are closely linked to the initial powder characteristics as well as the electrode (or electrolyte) microstructure after deposition. Significant improvement of the aforementioned properties can be obtained via nanostructuration of the materials. Thus, this thesis is dedicated to the synthesis of the cathode material Nd2NiO4+d and the electrolyte material Ce1-xAxO2-d. Methods employed are namely nanopowder synthesis in water/ethanol supercritical mixtures and spray pyrolysis as well as thin film deposition in supercritical fluids. The obtained objects have finally been characterized by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy in order to assess their performance for the SOFC application.

This report travels through multiple disciplines to seek innovative and sustainable energy solutions for wastewater treatment plants. The first subject is a report about increased global temperatures and an over-exploitation of natural resources that threatens ecosystems worldwide. The situation is urgent where the current trend is a 2°C increase of global temperatures already in 2040. Furthermore, the energy-land nexus becomes increasingly apparent where the world is going from a dependence on easily accessible fossil resources to renewables limited by land allocation. A direction of the required transition is suggested where all actors of the society must contribute to quickly construct a new carbon-neutral resource and energy system. Wastewater treatment is as required today as it is in the future, but it may move towards a more emphasized role where resource management and energy recovery will be increasingly important. This report is a master’s thesis in energy engineering with an ambition to provide some clues, with a focus on energy, to how wastewater treatment plants can be successfully integrated within the future society. A background check is conducted in the cross section between science, society, politics and wastewater treatment. Above this, a layer of technological insights is applied, from where accessible energy pathways can be identified and evaluated. A not so distant step for wastewater treatment plants would be to absorb surplus renewable electricity and store it in chemical storage mediums, since biogas is already commonly produced and many times also refined to vehicle fuel. Such extra steps could be excellent ways of improving the integration of wastewater treatment plants into the society. New and innovative electric grid-connected energy storage technologies are required when large synchronous electric generators are being replaced by ‘smaller’ wind turbines and solar cells which are intermittent (variable) by nature. A transition of the society requires energy storages, balancing of electric grids, waste-resource utilization, energy efficiency measures etcetera… This interdisciplinary approach aims to identify relevant energy technologies for wastewater treatment plants that could represent decisive steps towards sustainability.