Suicidal behavior has to be considered as a multifactorial phenomenon, which can be analyzed in a classifying-phenomenological manner. We have examined the relation of parasuicide typology to whole blood concentrations of serotonin, HVA, and tryptophan in 58 patients classified into 4 groups of parasuicide typology compared to 22 nonsuicidal depressed patients and 20 healthy subjects. Suicidal patients classified as impetuous, desperate and ambivalent types had significantly reduced whole blood 5-HT levels in comparison with the appealing type as well as nonsuicidal subjects. No differences were detected in the HVA content, but whole blood tryptophan concentrations were significantly reduced in impetuous suicidal patients and depressed patients compared to healthy subjects. This study provides evidence for reduced whole blood serotonin content based on different types of parasuicide. / Dieser Beitrag ist mit Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is associated with painful physical symptoms (PPS). These post hoc analyses of previous trial data assessed PPS and their response to duloxetine treatment in GAD patients. Studies 1 and 2 (n = 840) were 9- to 10-week efficacy trials; study 3 (n = 887) was a relapse prevention trial comprising a 26-week open-label treatment phase and a 26-week double-blind, placebo-controlled treatment continuation phase. Mean baseline visual analog scale scores (VAS, 0–100; n = 1727) ranged from 26 to 37 for overall pain, headache, back pain, shoulder pain, interference with daily activities, and time in pain while awake. In studies 1 and 2, improvement on all VAS scores was greater in duloxetine-treated than in placebo-treated patients (p ≤ 0.01). In study 3, pain symptoms worsened in responders switched to placebo compared with those maintained on duloxetine (p ≤ 0.02). In conclusion, duloxetine was efficacious in the short- and long-term treatment of PPS, which are common in GAD patients.

Background: Serotonin has been implicated in impulsive behaviours such as temporal discounting. While animal studies and theoretical approaches suggest that reduced tonic serotonin levels increase temporal discounting rates and vice versa, evidence from human studies is scarce and inconclusive. Furthermore, an important modulator of serotonin signalling, a genetic variation in the promoter region of the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR), has not been investigated for temporal discounting so far. Objective: First, the purpose of this study was to test for a significant association between 5-HTTLPR and temporal discounting. Second, we wished to investigate the effect of high/low tonic serotonin levels on intertemporal choice and blood oxygen-level-dependent response, controlling for 5-HTTLPR. Methods: We tested the association of 5-HTTLPR with temporal discounting rates using an intertemporal choice task in 611 individuals. We then manipulated tonic serotonin levels with acute tryptophan interventions (depletion, loading, balanced) in a subsample of 45 short (S)-allele and 45 long (L)/L-allele carriers in a randomised double-blind crossover design using functional magnetic resonance imaging and an intertemporal choice task. Results: Overall, we did not find any effect of serotonin and 5-HTTLPR on temporal discounting rates or the brain networks associated with valuation and cognitive control. Conclusion: Our findings indicate that serotonin may not be directly involved in choices including delays on longer timescales such as days, weeks or months. We speculate that serotonin plays a stronger role in dynamic intertemporal choice tasks where the delays are on a timescale of seconds and hence are therefore directly experienced during the experiment.

Serotonin ist ein Neurotransmitter im zentralen Nervensystem (ZNS), die eine Vielzahl von Funktionen in der menschlichen Physiologie hat. Serotonergen Neuronen in der Raphe-Kerne des Gehirns Unser Ziel war die Leitung der Differenzierung von embryonalen Stammzellen (ES-Zellen) eingeengt und pluripotenten Stammzellen (iPS) Zellen in eine angereicherte Population von Serotonin-produzierenden Zellen, neuartige Gene, die wesentlich für die Entwicklung zu identifizieren und die Funktion des serotonergen Systems. Zu diesem Zweck haben wir differenzierten ES-Zellen in Serotonin-produzierenden Neuronen. Verwendung von RNA zu verschiedenen Zeitpunkten im Verlauf der ES-Zelldifferenzierung wir Gene spezifisch in serotonergen Linie von Affymetrix Genarray angereichert identifiziert isoliert. Um Kandidatengene bewerten wir neu programmiert Maus und Ratte embryonale Fibroblasten zu iPS-Zellen und anschließend differenziert sie serotonergen Neuronen. Wir haben uns für Cacna2d1, für eine alpha2 / delta-Untereinheit von spannungsabhängigen Calciumkanäle als prominentesten Kandidaten unter diesen Genen kodiert. Zur Analyse der Rolle des Proteins Cacna2d1 wir verwendet Cacna2d1 Knockout-Mäusen und Morpholino-Knockdown im Zebrafisch. Wir versäumt, direkte Beteiligung der Cacna2d1 mit serotonergen Systems sehen. Allerdings Immunfärbung für Cacna2d1 in Zebrafisch zeigte zeitabhängige Muster während der frühen Entwicklung. Cacna2d1 Expression wurde in seitlichen Mittellinie Stamm gesehen; vermutlich in Neuromasten Zellen. Übereinstimmend mit ihrer Charakterisierung als Neuromasten werden diese Cacna2d1-positiven Zellen in Richtung der Schwanz der Migration. Darüber hinaus zeigte Zebrafisch gestörten Migrationsverhalten der Neuromasten nach Morpholino-Knockdown von Cacna2d1. So ist diese Studie stellte klar, dass Cacna2d1 ist für Zebrafisch Seitenlinie Entwicklung aber keinen Einfluss auf die Einrichtung des serotonergen Systems. / Serotonin is a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system (CNS), which has a wide range of functions in human physiology. Serotonergic neurons are concentrated in the raphe nuclei of the brain We aimed at directing the differentiation of embryonic stem (ES) cells and induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells into an enriched population of serotonin producing cells to identify novel genes that are essential for the development and function of serotonergic system. To this purpose we differentiated ES cells into serotonin producing neurons. Using RNA isolated at different time points during the course of ES cell differentiation we identified genes specifically enriched in the serotonergic lineage by Affymetrix gene array. To evaluate candidate genes we reprogrammed mouse and rat embryonic fibroblast to iPS cells and subsequently differentiated them to serotonergic neurons. We selected Cacna2d1, coding for an alpha2/delta subunit of voltage dependent calcium channels as a most prominent candidate among these genes. To analyse the role of the Cacna2d1 protein we used Cacna2d1 knockout mice and morpholino-knockdown in zebrafish. We failed to see direct involvement of Cacna2d1 with serotonergic system. However immunostaining for Cacna2d1 in zebrafish revealed time-dependent pattern during early development. Cacna2d1 expression was seen in lateral midline trunk; presumably in neuromast cells. Concordantly with their characterization as neuromasts, these Cacna2d1-positive cells are migrating towards the tail. Moreover, zebrafish showed disturbed migration behaviours of neuromasts after morpholino-knockdown of Cacna2d1. Thus, this study clarified that Cacna2d1 is essential for zebrafish lateral line development but does not affect the establishment of the serotonergic system.

Interactive 3d reconstruction are available in the journals' online versions of respective articles (see doi). / Tunicata umfasst 3000 marine Arten, mit sehr unterschiedlichen Lebensstrategien. Als eines der drei großen Taxa innerhalb der Chordata, stellt die Evolution der Tunikaten eine Schlüsselkomponente bei der Aufklärung der Evolution der Chordaten und Cranioten dar. Dafür ist ein Verständnis der Merkmalstransformationen innerhalb der Tunikaten notwendig. Leider sind die internen Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse der fünf großen Tunikatentaxa in verschiedenen molekularphylogenetischen Studien widersprüchlich. Bisher gibt es nur wenige morphologische phylogenetische Analysen. Ein Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit liegt auf der Untersuchung neuroanatomischer Merkmale, da das Nervensystem wahrscheinlich phylogenetische Informationen enthält. Durch das Anwenden moderner morphologischer Methoden, wie hochauflösende konfokale Laserscan- und Elektronenmikroskopie (REM und TEM), und 3d Rekonstruktionen basierend auf lichtmikroskopischen Schnitten, wurde die Verfügbarkeit neuroanatomischer Daten wesentlich verbessert. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Variation neuroanatomischer Merkmale größer ist als bisher angenommen und dass sich die Gehirnanatomie und die Verteilung von Neurotransmittern in den zwei Stadien der Thaliaceen unterscheidet. Neue unabhängige Merkmale des Nervensystems wurden in einer Matrix kodiert. Ergänzt mit traditionellen in der Tunikatentaxonomie verwendeten Merkmalen, entstand die bisher umfangreichste morphologische Datenmatrix, die 116 Merkmale für insgesamt 54 Arten umfasst. Die kladistische Analyse ergab monophyletische Tunicata, in denen die Appendicularia die Schwestergruppe der übrigen Tunikaten bildet. Ascidiacea ist monophyletisch, während „Thaliacea“ paraphyletisch ist. Zusätzlich wurde eine kombinierte phylogenetische Analyse basierend auf den morphologischen Daten und 18S rDNA-Sequenzen durchgeführt. Eine stufenweise stärkere Gewichtung phänotypischer Merkmale zeigt, dass die morphologischen Daten das Ergebnis der kladistischen Analyse stark beeinflussen. / Tunicata comprises 3000 marine species with diverse life-history strategies. As one of the three major chordate taxa, the evolution of tunicates plays a key role to elucidate chordate and craniate evolution. Therefore, a broader understanding of character transformations within tunicates is essential, but the interrelationships of the five main tunicate subtaxa in previous molecular phylogenetic analyses were contradictory. Morphological phylogenetic analyses are rare. In this comparative study emphasis was given to neuroanatomical characters, as the nervous system probably contains phylogenetic information. Applying modern morphological techniques like high-resolution confocal laser scanning microscopy and electron microscopy (SEM and TEM), serial sectioning for light microscopy, and digital 3d reconstruction, the number of available tunicate neuroanatomical data was considerably increased. It was revealed that the variation of neuroanatomical characters is higher than previously assumed, a specific pattern of serotonin-like immunoreactive cells in ascidians is present, and that brain anatomy and distribution of neurotransmitters in the two thaliacean life-cycle stages differs. Novel independent characters of the central nervous system were coded in a matrix for a cladistic analysis. Including traditional morphological from tunicate literature this effort resulted in the largest morphological data matrix to date, containing 116 phenotypic characters and 54 species. The cladistic analysis resulted in monophyletic Tunicata, with Appendicularia the sister taxon to the remaining tunicates. Furthermore, the monophyly of Ascidiacea is supported, whereas “Thaliacea” are paraphyletic. An additional phylogenetic analysis combining morphological and 18S rDNA-sequence data was performed. A reevaluation of this dataset with a successively increased weighting of the phenotypic data showed that morphological data strongly influence the outcome of the cladistic analysis.

Atherosklerose ist eine verbreitete Krankheit deren Pathogenese unzureichend erforscht ist. Bekannt ist jedoch, dass externe und interne Faktoren eine Rolle spielen. Die zugrunde liegenden Prozesse müssen genauer untersucht werden, um neue Therapieansätze zu entwickeln. Als Allroundtalent könnte Serotonin (5-HT) ein Kandidat sein, der eine entscheidende Rolle bei der atherosklerotischen Pathogenese spielt. Ob und wie dieses Hormon die Bildung atherosklerotischer Plaques, Makrophageninvasion, Verkalkung und Fibrose beeinflusst, war Gegenstand dieser Studie. Die vorliegende Studie ist die erste ihrer Art, die den neuartigen Ansatz von transgenen Doppel-Knockout-Mäusen verwendet, denen das Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) fehlt und, die das Schlüsselenzym für die periphere 5-HT-Synthese, Tryptophanhydroxylase 1 (Tph1), oder den primären 5-HT-Transporter (SERT) nicht bilden. Physiologie, Stoffwechselparameter und atherogene Prozesse wurden in ApoE/Tph1-/- und ApoE/Sert-/- Tieren mithilfe eines breiten Methodenspektrums untersucht und resultierten in einem umfassenden Überblick über die Wirkungsweisen von 5-HT auf Atherosklerose. Die 5-HT-Rezeptorverteilung ist unterschiedlich in Gefäßen von verschiedenen Mauslinien und in denen von Tieren mit Tph1-Defizienz, die in diesen Linien erzeugt wurden. Ferner weisen ApoE/Tph1-/- und ApoE/Sert-/- verschiedene Phänotypen auf: Tph1-Defizienz führt zu verminderter Zunahme des Körpergewichts, niedrigerem Plasmacholesterin und Leberparametern und erhöhtem Lebergewicht. Sert-Defizienz bedingt erhöhten Blutzucker, Plasmacholesterin und die Ausbildung größerer Plaques, sowie vermehrte Kollagenakkumulation. Die Langzeitgabe einer Western-Diät zeigte, dass Tph1-Defizienz schützende Wirkung auf den Lipidstoffwechsel hat, ein klarer Effekt auf die Atherogenese konnte nicht ermittelt werden. Zusammenfassend hebt diese Studie die komplexen Beziehungen vieler Faktoren während der Krankheit hervor. 5-HT spielt bei vielen dieser Faktoren eine Rolle, scheint jedoch nur eine schwache aber protektive Wirkung auf Atherogenese selbst zu haben. / Atherosclerosis is a common disease and its pathogenesis is only poorly understood. It’s known that external and internal factors play a role, but the exact processes need to be investigated more intensively to develop novel therapy approaches. As an all-round talent, serotonin (5-HT) might be a promising candidate to play a crucial role in atherosclerosis. If and how 5-HT affects atherosclerotic plaque formation, macrophage invasion, calcification and fibrosis was focus of this study. This study is the first of its kind using the novel approach of transgenic double knockout mice lacking the apolipoprotein E (ApoE, atherosclerosis model) and either the key enzyme in peripheral 5-HT synthesis, tryptophan hydroxylase 1 (Tph1) or the major 5-HT transporter, SERT. Physiology, metabolic parameters and atherogenic processes in ApoE/Tph1-/- and ApoE/Sert-/- animals were examined using a broad spectrum of methods and resulted in an extensive overview of how 5-HT might influence the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Most striking results of this study: 5-HT receptor distribution is altered in vessels of different background strains, and also in Tph1 deficient animals generated in these strains. Further, the examination of ApoE/Tph1-/- and ApoE/Sert-/- mice elucidated that both double knockouts exhibit different phenotypes: While Tph1 deficiency resulted in decreased bodyweight, plasma cholesterol and liver parameters and increased liver weight, Sert deficiency caused increases in blood glucose, plasma cholesterol, plaque size and collagen in plaques. Long term Western Diet application confirmed that Tph1 deficiency decreases weight gain and has protective effects on lipid metabolism, but a clear effect on atherogenesis could not be reported. Concluding, this study highlights the complex relationship between many factors acting on atherosclerotic pathogenesis. 5-HT plays a role in many of those factors, but seems to have only minor but protective effects on atherogenesis itself.

Die schlafendokrine Regulation wird massgeblich beeinflusst durch Hirnareale, die auch für die Pathophysiologie psychiatrischer, und insbesondere affektiver Störungen, eine wichtige Rolle spielen. Dazu zählen neben dem Hypothalamus, und insbesondere dem paraventrikulären Kerngebiet (PVN), auch limbische Areale wie der Hippokampus und die Amygdala, der präfrontale Kortex sowie die afferenten Kerngebiete im Hirnstamm, insbesondere der Locus coeruleus (LC) und die Raphe Kerne. Der Schlaf und die nächtliche Hormonsekretion können als dynamische Prozesse begriffen werden, die gekennzeichnet sind durch eine fein abgestimmte Abfolge neuronaler Aktivitäten in bestimmten Kerngebieten im Verlauf einer Nacht. Somit ermöglichen polysomnographische und endokrine Untersuchungen Aussagen über mögliche Funktionsänderungen im Zusammenspiel dieser verschiedenen Kerngebiete und leisten daher einen wichtigen Beitrag für die (neuro-) psychiatrische Forschung. In der folgenden Arbeit haben wir insbesondere die dynamischen Aspekte der Schlafarchitektur und die nächtliche Hormonsekretion als Parameter verwendet, um verschiedene Einflussfaktoren auf die schlafendokrine Regulation zu untersuchen. Dabei war es mein Ziel, neben der Diagnose Major Depression auch eine Interaktion zwischen Geschlecht, Alter und Symptomatologie der Depression zu untersuchen. Wir haben dargestellt, dass das Geschlecht einen massgeblichen Einfluss auf diejenigen Schlafparameter ausübt, die bisher als charakteristische Merkmale einer Major Depression angesehen wurden. Weiterhin konnten wir zeigen, dass das Alter (bzw. die Menopause bei Frauen) die schlafendokrinen Veränderungen im Rahmen einer Major Depression geschlechtsspezifisch moduliert. Auch beobachteten wir, dass die klinischen Merkmale einer Major Depression durch geschlechtsspezifische Faktoren beeinflusst werden, wie auch neuere Studien nahelegen. Insbesondere stellen wir die Hypothese auf, dass sogenannte atypische Symptome der Depression bei jüngeren Frauen gehäuft vorkommen und in einer Unteraktivität der HPA Achse (vielleicht als Ausdruck einer genetischen Untererregbarkeit), der afferenten, aktivierenden Serotoninneurone und der Amygdala Kerne begründet liegen. An dieser Konstellation könnte auch eine chronische, aber moderate inflammatorische Immunreaktion beteiligt sein. Im Gegensatz dazu weisen Patienten mit nicht atypischer Depression Zeichen einer Überaktivität der HPA Achse und der Amygdala Kerne auf, die sich im Sinne eines Teufelskreises gegenseitig verstärken und afferente katecholaminerge Neurone einbeziehen können. Die Möglichkeit, dass eine durch inflammatorische Zytokine hervorgerufene Sensibilisierung der HPA Aktivität zu dieser Entwicklung beiträgt scheint plausibel und sollte in zukünftigen Studien überprüft werden. Die unmittelbare Relevanz dieser Überlegungen und Befunde wird unterstrichen durch geschlechtsspezifische Behandlungserfolge bei Patienten mit Major Depression und durch unsere Befunde einer geschlechtsspezifischen Beeinflussung der schlafendokrinen Regulation durch Peptidhormone. Schliesslich haben wir in einer Gruppe von Patientinnen mit Multipler Sklerose (MS) gezeigt, dass unabhängig von den Symptomen einer Major Depression, die hochdosierte Gabe von Glukokortikoiden depressions-typische Veränderungen der schlafendokrinen Regulation induzieren kann. Da diese Patientinnen neben der akuten Glukokortikoidgabe auch eine akute inflammatorische Reaktion (akuter MS Schub) aufwiesen, stellt sich die Frage nach einer Interaktion zwischen der inflammatorischen Reaktion und der Hypothalamus-Hypophysen-Nebennierenrinden (HPA) Achse. Einerseits können immunologische Prozesse den Schlaf beeinflussen, und andererseits gibt es zunehmend Hinweise für einen Zusammenhang zwischen affektiven Symptomen und Immunreaktionen. Da das Geschlecht Immunreaktionen wesentlich beeinflusst, könnten die geschlechtsspezifischen Unterschiede hinsichtlich der klinischen Symptome und der schlafendokrinen Veränderungen im Rahmen einer Major Depression Ausdruck unterschiedlicher zugrundeliegender immunologischer Mechanismen sein. Unterschiede in der Pathophysiologie depressiver Störungen eröffnen die Möglichkeit, die Therapie depressiver Patienten spezifischer auf die zugrundeliegenden Pathomechanismen auszurichten. Dadurch könnten erstens die Behandlung optimiert und zweitens neue spezifischere Behandlungsstrategien für Patienten mit affektiven Störungen entwickelt werden. / The sleep-endocrine regulation is critically influenced by brain areas, which also play an important role for the pathophysiology of psychiatric, and particularly affective disorders. These include the hypothalamus, and particularly the paraventricular nucleus (PVN), but also limbic areas such as the hippocampus and the amygdala, the prefrontal cortex as well as afferent brainstem nuclei, in particular the locus coeruleus (LC) and the raphe nuclei. Sleep and nocturnal hormone secretion can be viewed as dynamic processes, which are characterised by a fine-tuned pattern of neuronal activity in certain brain nuclei in the course of a night. Thus, polysomnographic and endocrine investigations give us insight into possible functional changes in the interplay of these different nuclei and hence provide an important contribution to the field of (neuro-) psychiatric research. In the following piece of work we have used in particular parameters which highlight the dynamic aspects of the sleep-architecture and hormone secretion to examine the various modulators of sleep-endocrine regulation. My aim was to investigate, besides the effect of the diagnosis of major depression, also the interaction of gender, ageing and clinical features of major depression. We have demonstrated that gender has a critical influence on sleep-endocrine changes, which so far have been considered typical of major depression. Also, we could show that ageing (respectively the menopause in women) affects sleep-endocrine changes in patients with major depression in a gender-specific manner. Furthermore, we noted that the clinical features of major depression are also influenced by gender-specific factors, as suggested by recent studies. In particular, we put forward the hypothesis that so-called atypical features of depression are common in young female patients and reflect hypoactivity of the HPA axis (possibly due to a genetic hyposensitivity to stimulation), the afferent activating serotonin neurones and the amygdala nuclei. A chronic but moderate inflammatory immune reaction could also play a role in this situation. Conversely, patients with non-atypical depression show signs of overactivity of the HPA axis and the amygdala nuclei, which can be mutually reinforced, leading to a vicious circle and which can include afferent catecholaminergic neurones. The possibility that priming of the HPA axis with inflammatory cytokines contributes to this development seems plausible and should be examined in future studies. The immediate relevance of these considerations and data is highlighted by gender-specific treatment responses among patients with major depression and our own data demonstrating gender-specific modulation of sleep-endocrine regulation by peptide hormones. Finally, we have shown in a group of female patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) that high doses of glucocorticoids can induce depression-like changes of sleep-endocrine regulation, independently of clinical symptoms of depression. As these patients were treated with high doses of glucocorticoids and suffered from an acute inflammatory reaction (acute MS relapse), the question arises about an interaction between the inflammatory reaction and the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis. On the one hand immunological processes can affect sleep and on the other hand there is a growing number of studies suggesting an association between affective symptoms and immune reactions. As gender critically influences immune reactions, the gender-specific differences in clinical features and sleep-endocrine changes in patients with major depression could reflect underlying differences in immunological mechanisms. Differences regarding the pathophysiology of major depression open up the possibility to adjust treatments more specifically to the underlying pathophysiology. Thereby, one could firstly optimise the therapy and secondly develop new and more specific treatment strategies for patients with affective disorders.

In this dissertation, I have focused on the role of serotonin (5-HT) as a modulator in heart rate, feeding and locomotion behaviors as well as sensorimotor circuit activity in Drosophila melanogaster. A general overview in the actions of the serotonergic (5-HTergic) system on the larval heart and nervous system in larvae and adults is reviewed in Chapter One. I sought to further study the actions of serotonergic system to provide additional insights into cellular and molecular underpinnings in the actions of 5-HT.In Chapter two, I present studies on mechanisms of action by 5-HT in larvae cardiac system. For this purpose, genetic and pharmacological approaches were used. The transgenic flies used expressed hM4Di receptors (designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs (DREADDs)) which were employed to manipulate the activity of Gαi heterotrimeric protein through activation of engineered G-protein coupled receptors hM4Di DREADD. The activation of hM4Di DREADD receptors by clozapine-N-oxide (CNO) arrested the heart beat; however, pharmacological manipulation of adenylyl cyclase activity and cAMP levels had no significant effect on heart rate. In Chapter Three the role of various 5-HT receptor subtypes that mediate 5-HT action in larval cardiac tissue is addressed. In this study, various 5-HT agonists and antagonists were employed. The pharmacological results demonstrate that a 5-HT2 agonist significantly increases the heart rate. Furthermore, 5-HT2 antagonist, markedly reduces the effect of 5-HT. In addition, I employed genetic approaches to corroborate the pharmacological results. In addition, I investigated the role of the 5-HTergic system in locomotion and feeding behaviors as well as in modulation of sensorimotor circuits. This study is delineated in Chapter Four. The 5-HT biosynthesis was dysregulated by feeding Drosophila larvae various pharmacological agents. 5-HT receptor subtypes were manipulated using RNA interference mediated knockdown and 5-HT receptor insertional mutations. Moreover, synaptic transmission at 5-HT neurons was blocked or induced in both larvae and adult flies. The results demonstrate that disruption of components within the 5-HT system significantly impairs locomotor activity and feeding behavior in larvae. In addition, acute activation of 5-HT neurons disrupts normal locomotor activity in adult flies. In Chapter Five, I addressed direct actions of fluoxetine on synaptic transmission at neuromuscular junctions (NMJs), neural properties, and cardiac function unrelated to fluoxetine’s action as a selective 5-HT reuptake inhibitor using Drosophila, crayfish and primary neurons in mouse model system. Fluoxetine application blocked action potentials in crayfish axons, enhanced occurrences of spontaneous synaptic vesicle fusion events at NMJs of both Drosophila and crayfish. In rodent primary neurons, fluoxetine application resulted in increase of cytoplasmic Ca2+. I also developed teaching modules, which are presented in Chapter Seven, to guide students how to exploit a vast array of genetic tools, such as optogenetics in Drosophila to manipulate various neural circuits and to observe their effects on behavior and sensorimotor circuit activity. I also developed a module to teach college level students a hands-on experiment regarding proprioception and tension receptors in crab limb, which is detailed in Chapter Eight.

Thesis (MScMedSc (Biomedical Sciences. Medical Physiology)--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / For many centuries, scientists have engaged in a theoretical debate concerning the etiology of mood disorders, with very few ancient scholars speculating about the importance of genetic factors and affective temperaments as factors in the etiology of depression. Mood, emotion and cognition have been shown to be modulated by the serotonergic midbrain raphe system; implicated in the pathogenesis of psychiatric disorders like those of the affective spectrum. Evidence from neuroscience, genetics, and clinical investigation demonstrate that depression is a disorder of the brain. Brain imaging research is revealing that in depression, neural circuits responsible for moods, thinking, sleep, appetite, and behavior fail to function properly, and that the regulation of critical neurotransmitters is impaired. Genetics research, including studies of twins, indicates that genes play a role in depression. Vulnerability to depression appears to result from the influence of multiple genes acting together with environmental factors. Other research has shown that stressful life events, particularly in the form of loss such as the death of a close family member, may trigger major depression in susceptible individuals. Depression and anxiety have often been successfully treated by means of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. However, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors do not solve all the problems inherent to the treatment of depression, for approximately 30 % of depressed patients do not respond to treatment and 20 % experience relapses whilst on treatment. Of consideration is the fact that the majority of drugs today are based on proteins, with 50 % of therapeutics on the market targeting cell membrane proteins. Up to this day the precise pathophysiology of mood disorders remains obscure, as does the neurobiology of normal mood regulation. Accordingly, there is a need for methods to identify the structural and/or signaling components which lead to changes in the brain, particularly the hippocampus, of subjects having mood disorders such as bipolar depressive disorder, chronic major depressive disorder and the like. Similarly, there is a need for the early detection, screening and diagnosis of individuals at risk for a mood disorder. As the serotonin tranpsorter is the primary target for therapeutic intervention in the treatment of numerous psychiatric disorders and considering the fact that at the structural level this protein’s function as transporter in membranes remains incompletely understood, investigating its function in psychiatric disorders are of importance . The objective of this study was to determine the role of the serotonin transporter in wild type and serotonin knockout rats, with regards to the hippocampus. Rat hippocampi were fractionated into cytosolic and membrane components, which were run and further separated in two dimensions. Firstly separation occurred by isoelectrical focusing (pI), follwed by gel iii electrophoresis (molecular weight). Gels were compared to see whether protein spots have changed between animals that have been differentially bred. Differentially expressed protein spots, as determined by PD Quest software, were excised, digested and analyzed by means of mass spectrometry. Our results indicated that metabolic, structural and cell signaling proteins were differentially expressed in both the ventral and dorsal hippocampus of the serotonin knockout rat. Futhermore, cellular stress proteins were found to be only differentially expressed in the ventral hippocampus. The majority of proteins identified in both hippocampal areas as well as both fractions, were assigned to energy metabolism. The cytosolic protein profile mirrored the pattern of the membrane protein profile. In conclusion, this proteomic study identified various protein groups that interacted with one another, thus establishing compensation for disrupted serotonin homeostasis.

<p>Supratherapeutic doses of anabolic androgenic steroids (AASs) are administered, not only as performance-enhancing drugs in the world of sports, but also in order to modify behaviour. AAS abusers are at risk of developing serious physical and psychological side effects such as dependence and aggressive behaviour. The aim of this thesis was to investigate the impact of supratherapeutic doses of nandrolone decanoate after subchronic administration on dopamine and serotonin pathways involved in drug dependence and aggression, in the male rat brain.</p><p>Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats received intramuscular injections of nandrolone decanoate (3 or 15 mg/kg) or vehicle once daily for 14 days. Nandrolone decanoate pre-exposure abolished the effect of amphetamine on the 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) tissue level in the hypothalamus and on the DOPAC/dopamine ratio in the hypothalamus and the hippocampus. A significant decrease of the basal extracellular DOPAC and homovanillic acid (HVA) levels could be detected in the nucleus accumbens, which remained low during the first hour following the amphetamine challenge. Nandrolone decanoate significantly reduced the activity of both monoamine oxidase A and B (MAO-A and -B) in the caudate putamen and amygdala. The gene transcript levels of MAO-B, and the dopamine D1 and D4 receptors were altered in limbic regions. No changes in transcriptional levels could be detected among the serotonin receptor genes examined. However, the density of the serotonin transporter protein was elevated in a range of aggression-related brain regions.</p><p>Taken together, subchronic administration of nandrolone decanoate causes dopaminergic and serotonergic dysregulations in distinct brain regions. These areas of the brain are involved in the development of drug dependence and expression of impulsive and aggressive behaviours. These results may contribute to explain some of the behavioural changes often reported in AAS abusers, such as polydrug use and impaired impulse control.</p>