In this study, an examination regarding what benefits an aggregatedpopulation of Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESSs) could result incompared to when the individual units in the population are being usedseparately has been executed. The increased flexibility and reducedsafety margins as results of the aggregation was also examined. Thestudy was executed on behalf of the smart energy service companyCheckWatt AB and the study furthermore rests upon results of earlierperformed master theses on behalf of the company. By investigating previous work and studies through a literature study,the enabling of anumerical study was done. The numerical study wasbased on a simple model of a Virtual Power Plant (VPP) where severalBESSs are smartly controlled in order to be used for both local peakshaving and as common providers of the frequency reserve FrequencyContainment Reserve - Normal (FCR-N). The study involved the formation of a numerical model which simulated cases of both aggregated and non-aggregated populations of up to 45 load profile units, this in order for advantages and differences to be distinguished. The data used inthe simulations was received mainly from the CheckWatt AB andconsisted of photovoltaic (PV) electricity production and load data of 45 customers of the company. A sensibility analysis of the numericalstudy was also performed, which showed that the studied model andsystem were quite stable. The results of the simulations of the case of the study proved thatthere are some advantages connected to aggregation of several BESSs,and that the aggregation enabled an added value and a higher level offlexibility within the system. The safety margins connected todelivery of FCR-N could be reduced when aggregating several BESS,while a more extensive study is requested regarding safety marginsconnected to peak shaving. The study’s results further showed that anaggregator can be used as a sustainable and flexible solution forbalancing the electrical grid in the transition to a sustainableenergy system allowing a higher penetration of intermittentenergy sources.

Följande studie syftar till att kvalitativt undersöka reklamfilmer av varumärket Gillette Venus, genom en multimodal kritisk diskursanalys. Det valda materialet analyseras på två nivåer: denotation och konnotation. Syftet med studien är att diskursivt analysera hur kvinnors kroppsbehåring konstrueras diskursivt, samt om diskurserna har utvecklats med tiden. Avsikten med studien är att bidra med kunskap om hur kvinnors kroppsbehåring konstrueras i reklamfilmer och att belysa den bakomliggande ideologin bakom skildringen. Studien kommer att undersöka fyra reklamfilmer av Gillette Venus: "Gillette Venus Disposable Razor" (2005), "Venus Embrace" (2010), "#UseYourAnd" (2015) och "My Skin. My Way. Stories: Ofey” (2021). För att uppnå syftet med studien, använder analysen sig av det teoretiska ramverket av genusperformativitet, könsnormer och genus i reklam. Resultaten av studien visar att sättet som Gillette Venus konstruerar kvinnors kroppsbehåring har förändrats delvis till följd av förändringen från tredje vågen av feminism till fjärde vågen av feminism i början av 2010-talet. Utöver detta drar studien slutsatsen att Gillette Venus fortsätter att skildra en traditionell syn på kvinnors kroppshår, genom att de inte visar det eller nämner det i sina respektive reklamfilmer. Den skildrade kontextualiseringen av varför kvinnor bör raka sig förändras dock. Därför är den primära slutsatsen av studien att kvinnors kroppshår fortsätter att porträtteras i Gillette Venus reklamfilmer som något kvinnor måste bli av med, även om resonemanget varför förändras med tiden. / The following study aims to qualitatively examine commercials by the brand Gillette Venus, through a multimodal critical discourse analysis. The chosen material is analysed on two levels: denotation and connotation. The purpose of the study is to discursively analyse how women's body hair is discursively constructed and if the discourses have evolved over time. The intention of the study is to contribute with knowledge regarding how women’s body hair is portrayed in commercials and highlight the underlying ideology behind the portrayal. The study will examine four commercials by Gillette Venus: “Gillette Venus Disposable Razor” (2005), “Venus Embrace” (2010), “#UseYourAnd” (2015) and “My Skin. My Way. Stories: Ofey” (2021). In order to achieve the purpose of the study, the analysis uses the theoretical framework of gender performativity, gender norms and gender in advertising. The results of the study show that the way in which Gillette Venus constructs women's body hair has changed partly, as a result of the change from third wave feminism to the fourth wave of feminism in the early 2010s. Furthermore, the study also concludes that Gillette Venus continues to portray a traditional view on women's body hair, in that they do not show it nor mention it in their respective commercials. However, the portrayed contextualisation as to why women should shave does change. Thus, the prominent conclusion of the study is that women’s body hair continues to be portrayed in Gillette Venus commercials as something women must get rid of, although the reasoning behind it does change with time.

The increasing demand for renewable energy sources to meet climate targets and reduce carbon emissions poses challenges to the power grid due to their intermittent nature. One potential solution to maintain grid stability is by implementing Hybrid Energy Systems (HESs) that incorporate a Battery Energy Storage System (BESS). To achieve the most favorable outcome in terms of both technical feasibility and profitability of a BESS, it is essential to employ models for simulating and optimizing the control of system components. This thesis focuses on the analysis of energy and revenue streams in a HES consisting of a BESS, photovoltaics (PVs), and an energy load including a fast charging station for electric vehicles (EVs). The objective is to optimize the system based on revenue generation by comparing the control techniques of peak shaving, energy arbitrage, and the integration of ancillary services within the Swedish energy market. The research questions explore the optimal utilization of the BESS and assess the impact of the different control techniques. A model is created in Python with the package CasADi where data from an ongoing installation of a HES in southern Sweden is combined with data from literature research. The model includes an objective function that minimizes the total cost of power from the grid based on the day-ahead price, battery degradation, and monthly peak power.  To answer the research questions, four different scenarios are simulated. The first scenario is a base for comparison, the second one focuses on peak shaving and energy arbitrage, the third on participation in the ancillary service FCR-D upwards regulation, and the last one is a combination of peak shaving, energy arbitrage, and the ancillary service FCR-D. The results show that the remuneration from the ancillary service FCR-D is comparably much higher than the revenues generated from peak shaving and energy arbitrage, providing more than 500% of revenue compared to the same system but without a BESS. The scenario with peak shaving and energy arbitrage shows an increase in revenue of 29% but with more cycling of the battery which could cause losses in performance in the long term. To validate the results, sensitivity analyses are conducted by evaluating weighting in the objective function, implementing Model Predictive Control (MPC), and reviewing price variations.  In conclusion, efficient control techniques can enhance system performance, minimize losses, and ensure optimal utilization of different energy sources, leading to improved feasibility and profitability. The optimal usage of a BESS involves finding a balance between maximizing revenue generation and minimizing battery degradation. This can be achieved through control strategies that optimize the charging and discharging patterns of the BESS based on electricity price signals, demand patterns, and battery health considerations.

District heating is considered an environmentally friendly, efficient and cost-effective way of providingheat to buildings but even so, the industry will be facing several challenges in the upcoming years. Acombination of higher operating costs, growing demand, competition from alternative heatingtechnologies, national and international climate and energy goals and the need for transparency towardscustomers places high requirements on many thermal energy suppliers. One path to try to meet many ofthe demands is to introduce heat load control in the shape of thermal inertia in buildings as a short-termthermal energy storage. Several pilot tests have been performed in the matter but no study regardinglarge scale implementation and effects on the network has been performed. Adding to this, severaldifferent thermal energy suppliers are developing similar technologies alongside each other but there iscurrently no documentation on different approaches on the matter.Stockholm Exergi, a thermal energy supplier in Stockholm, have just started a project regarding heatload control and wanted deeper understanding in the matter. The overall purpose of this thesis hastherefore been to evaluate how heat load control could be performed successfully by Stockholm Exergito continue to promote competitive and sustainable delivery of district heat. This was done throughanalysis of other heat load control projects which resulted in eight key performance indicators. Thesewere; revenue, costs, fuel mix, greenhouse gas emissions, customer satisfaction, energy demand,available capacity and peak load. The key performance indicators were used to evaluate one ongoingtest run of heat load control performed by Stockholm Exergi to determine the profitability of theapproach. The test consisted of a control period of three hours in four buildings. The base of the studyconsists of a literature study and interviews performed both internally and externally.From the data analysis it was concluded that the energy savings due to heat load control were between13-19% for the individual buildings. The average total energy saving compared the entire day was 15.8%and the average total energy saving during the control period was 57.3%. It could also be concluded thatthe average total available capacity for all four buildings due to heat load control was 410 kWhcorresponding to 20.34Wh/m2 floor area.With the current price agreements, it was found that customers could save 0.145% on their monthly billdue to this reduction. For Stockholm Exergi, cost savings took the shape of avoided fuel costs and thetotal average cost savings were during the control period 0.072% with heat pumps as marginalproduction. Due to lack of data it was not possible to calculate other costs. The avoided GHG emissionsdue to the reduction in generation was 3.4 kg CO2-equivalents. During the control, the indoortemperature was reduced by a maximum of 0.587⁰C but no residents in the test buildings complainedabout bad indoor conditions.It was concluded that the current method and process for heat load control at Stockholm Exergi showsimilar results as other heat load control projects. Even though it is too soon to know for certain, it wasalso found that it has the potential to be economically, socially and ecologically successful in large scale.The thesis also concluded a list of recommendations for the future development of the heat load controlproject within Stockholm Exergi that would contribute to increase the probability of a successfulimplementation.Lastly, it was found that Stockholm Exergi is in the forefront of the development of heat load controlon large scale and are therefore in a position of trial and error where caution is paramount. / Fjärrvärme anses vara ett miljövänligt, effektivt och ekonomiskt lönsamt sätt att tillhandahålla värmetill byggnader men fjärrvärmeindustrin kommer ändå att stå inför flera utmaningar under de kommandeåren. En kombination av högre driftskostnader, ökad efterfrågan, konkurrens från alternativauppvärmningstekniker, nationella och internationella klimat- och energimål samt behovet av öppenhetgentemot slutanvändarna ställer höga krav på många fjärrvärmeleverantörer. Ett sätt att försöka mötadessa krav är att införa värmelastkontroll i form av termisk tröghet i byggnader som en kortsiktigvärmeenergilagring i fjärrvärmenätet. Flera pilot tester har gjorts inom området men ingen studierörande storskalig implementering och effekter på nätverket har utförts. Vidare utvecklar flera olikafjärrvärmeleverantörer liknande tekniker parallellt med varandra, men det finns för närvarande ingendokumentation gällande de olika metoderna.Stockholm Exergi, en fjärrvärmeleverantör i Stockholm, har nyligen påbörjat ett projekt inomvärmelastkontroll och har önskat djupare förståelse inom ämnet. Det övergripande syftet med dennaavhandling har därför varit att utvärdera hur kontroll av värmelasten kan genomföras framgångsrikt avStockholms Exergi för att fortsätta främja konkurrenskraftig och hållbar leverans av fjärrvärme.Detta gjordes genom analys av andra projekt rörande värmelastkontroll vilket resulterade i åtta nyckeltal.Dessa var; vinster, kostnader, bränslemix, växthusgasutsläpp, kundnöjdhet, energibehov, tillgängligkapacitet och toppbelastning. Dessa användes för att utvärdera en pågående testkörning avvärmelastkontroll i Stockholms Exergis fjärrvärmenät för att bestämma lönsamheten med metoden.Testkörningen gjordes i fyra byggnader under en kontrollperiod på tre timmar. Avhandlingen hade singrund i en omfattande litteraturstudie och interna samt externa intervjuer.Från dataanalysen drogs slutsatsen att energibesparingen var mellan 13–19% för de enskildabyggnaderna. Den genomsnittliga totala energibesparingen jämfört hela dagen var 15,8% och dengenomsnittliga totala energibesparingen under kontrollperioden var 57,3%. Den genomsnittliga totalatillgängliga kapaciteten på grund av värmelastkontroll blev därigenom 410 kWh vilket motsvarade 20,34Wh/m2 golvyta.Med de nuvarande prisöverenskommelserna konstaterades det att kunderna kunde spara 0,145% på sinmånatliga faktura på grund av denna minskning. För Stockholm Exergi fanns kostnadsbesparingar iform av undvikna bränslekostnader för spetsproduktion. Den genomsnittliga besparingen för undviknabränslekostnader var under kontrollperioden 0,072% med värmepumpar som marginalproduktion. Ingaandra kostnader kunde beräknas på grund av begränsad data. De undvikna växthusgasutsläppen på grundav denna minskning var 3,4 kg CO2-ekvivalenter. Under kontrollen reducerades innertemperaturen somhögst med 0,587 °C men inga boende klagade över försämrade inomhusförhållanden.En slutsats var att den nuvarande metoden och processen för kontroll av värmelasten utförd avStockholms Exergi visar liknande resultat som andra projekt inom samma område. Det kunde ävenfastställas att det har god potential att vara ekonomiskt, socialt och ekologiskt framgångsrikt i stor skalai framtiden. Avhandlingen fastställde också en lista med rekommendationer för den framtidautvecklingen av värmelastkontroll inom Stockholms Exergi. Dessa rekommendationer ska bidra tillökad sannolikhet för en framgångsrik implementering.Slutligen konstaterades det att Stockholms Exergi ligger i spetsen för utvecklingen av värmelastkontrolli stor skala. Detta innebär att de är i en position där det gäller att försiktigt och långsamt prova sig fram.

No description available.

Due to the increased demand for electricity in recent years and the estimated demand in the future it has become clear that the capacity of the Swedish electrical grid is insufficient, and the grid is not able deliver the amount of power that is demanded by the market. The crucial points in the grid where the grid capacity is insufficient could be several. It could be in the transmission system but also at locations in the distribution system, such as congestion points for residential areas for example. For the grid to be able to meet the new demands large investments are needed to renew electricity grid. This will cost a lot of money and it will take several years before the grid capacity is up to scale. A problem is that the grid must be dimensioned for the highest power peaks that could be expected even though these might occur just a few times every year. As a response to this a new market for flexibility solutions in the grid has arisen. An example of a flexibility solution is a method called peak-shaving. Peak-shaving is a method that levels out the overall load-profile and so on reduces the highest power-peaks. The aim of this thesis was to investigate how integrated power systems with battery storageinstalled in household villas could implement peak-shaving with the purpose of providing a flexibility-service to the grid. The study includes theoretical simulations, as well as practical experiments and performance analyses of installed systems. The study also includes an investigation how the current price model and tax rules create incentives for costumers to provide this flexibility service. Firstly, a theoretical simulation model in MATLAB was developed that could make a virtual simulation of the result from implementation of peak-shaving based on historical data of the power profile of the household. After this, experimental tests were conducted for three households where peak-shaving was implemented. With the data from the experiments the performance and potential deficiency of the installed systems could be analysed. With the recorded data from the experiments and with collected data of the hourly based price for electricity it could be studied what impact peak-shaving has on the costs for the household and so on what incentives the price model and tax rules creates to implement peak-shaving.What could be concluded in the study was that peak-shaving has a good potential to reduce power-peaks and provide flexibility to the grid. The results from the tests showed that the power-peaks were able to be reduced but the power systems did however have some observed deficiencies that reduced their performance. It could also be concluded that the current price model and tax rules often increases the costs when implementing peak-shaving and so on create poor incentives to provide this flexibility service.

The question of finding the optimal size for battery energy storage systems (BESS) to be used for energy arbitrage and peak shaving has gained more and more interest in recent years. This is due to the increase in variability of electricity prices caused by the increase of renewable but also variable electricity production units in the electricity grid. The problem of finding the optimal size for a BESS is of high complexity. It includes many factors that affect the usefulness and the economic value of a BESS. This study includes a thorough literature study regarding different methods and techniques used for finding optimal size (both capacity and power) for a BESS. From the literature study two meta-heuristic algorithms were found to have been used with success for similar problems. The two algorithms were Genetic algorithm (GA) and Firefly algorithm (FF). These algorithms have in this thesis been tested in a case study optimizing the BESS capacity and power to either maximising the net present value (NPV) of investing in a Li-ion BESS of the LPF type or minimizing the levelized cost of storage (LCOS) for the BESS, with a project lifetime of 10 years. The BESS gains monetary value from energy arbitrage by being a middleman between a large residential house complex seen as the "user" with a predefined hourly electricity load demand and the electricity grid. For the case study a simplified charge and discharge dispatch schedule was implemented for the BESS with the focus of maximising the value of energy arbitrage. The case study was divided into 3 different cases, the base case where no instalment of a BESS was done. Case 2 included the instalment of the BESS whilst case 3 included installing both a BESS and an electrical heater (ELH). The electrical heater in case 3 was implemented to shift a heating load from the user to an electrical load, to save money as well as reduce CO2 emissions from a preinstalled gas heater used in the base case. The results showed that overall GA was a better optimization algorithm for the stated problem, having lower optimization time overall between 60%-70% compared to FF and depending on the case. For case 2, GA achieves the best LCOS with a value of 0.225 e/kWh, being 11.4% lower compared to using FF. Regarding NPV for case 2, FF achieves the best solutions at the lowest possible value in the search space for the capacity and power (i.e., 0.1 kWh for capacity and 0.1 kW for power), with an NPV at -51.5e, showing that for case 2 when optimizing for NPV an investment in a BESS is undesirable. GA finds better solutions for case 3 for both NPV and LCOS at 954,982e and 0.2305 e/kWh respectively, being 35.7% larger and 9.1% lower respectively compared to using FF. For case 3 it was shown that the savings from installing the ELH stands for a large portion of the profits, leading to a positive NPV compared to case 2 when it was not implemented. Finally, it was found that the GA can be a useful tool for finding optimal power and capacity for BESS instalments, compared to FF that got stuck at local optimums. However, it was seen that the charge and discharge dispatch schedule play an important role regarding the effectiveness of installing a BESS. As for some cases the BESS was only used 17% of all hours during a year (case 2, when optimizing for NPV). Therefore, further research is of interest into the schedule function and its role regarding finding the optimal BESS size. / Frågan angående hur man hittar den optimal storleken på en energilagringsenhet av batteritypen (BESS) som skall användas för energiarbitrage samt "peak shaving" har fått mer och mer uppmärksamhet de senaste åren. Detta sker på grund av en ökning av variabiliteten av elpriser, vilket i sig delvis kommer från ett ökat installerande av förnyelsebar, men då också variabla energiproduktionsenheter till elnätet. Problemet med att hitta den optimala storleken för en BESS är på grund av komplexitet i frågan. Det innehåller många faktorer som påverkar effektiviteten samt det ekonomiska värdet av en BESS. Denna avhandling innehåller en litteraturstudie om olika tekniker och metoder som används för att hitta den optimal lösningen för optimal storlek (kapacitet och kraft) på en BESS. Från litteraturstudien hittades två meta-heuristiska algoritmer som använts med succés på liknande problem. De två algoritmerna var "Genetic algorithm" (GA) och "Firefly algorithm (FF). Dessa algoritmer har i denna avhandling blivit testade i en fallstudie för att optimera kapacitet och kraft för en BESS genom att antingen maximera nettonuvärdet (NPV) som fås av att investera i en Li-ion BESS av typen LPF eller att minimera "levelized cost of storage" (LCOE) för en BESS med en livstid på 10 år. Detta genom att man får monetärt värde från att använda en BESS för energiarbitrage genom att vara en mellanhand mellan ett stort bostadskomplex som ses vara en "användare" med ett förbestämt elanvändningsmönster och elnätet. För fallstudien användes en simpel metodologi för laddnings- och urladdninsgschema för att maximera energiarbitrage. Fallstudien delades upp i tre olika fall, ett basfall där ingen installation av en BESS gjordes. I fall 2 installerades bara en BESS medans för fall 3 installerades både en BESS samt en elektrisk värmare (ELH) för att omvandla användarens termiska energianvändning till mer elektrisk energianvändning. Genom detta kan monetära besparingar göras samt reducera mängden CO2 utsläpp som annars hade kommit från en redan installerade gasvärmare, i basfallet.  Resultatet visade att totalt sätt var GA en bättre optimeringsalgoritm för det specifika problemet, med lägre optimeringstid på 60%-70% jämfört med FF och beroende på fall. För fall 2 hittar GA det lägsta värdet på LCOS på 0.225 e/kWh, och var då 11.4% lägre jämfört med FF. Angående NPV för fall 2 hittar FF den bästa lösningen på det minsta möjliga värdet på kraft och kapacitet i sökutrymmet (det vill säga 0.1 kWh för kapacitet och 0.1 kW för kraft), med ett NPV värde på -51.5e, vilket visar att för fall 2 när man optimerar för NPV så finns ingen ekonomisk vinning av att investera i en BESS. GA hittar den bästa lösningen för fall 3, både för NPV och LCOS på 954,982e och 0.2305 e/kWh respektivt, vilket är 35.7% större och 9.1% lägre respektivt jämfört när man använder FF. För fall 3 visade resultaten att besparingarna från att installera en ELH stod för den större delen av alla vinster, vilket ledde till positiva värden för NPV. Slutligen visade resultaten att GA kan vara ett användbart verktyg för att hitta den optimala lösningen för storleken på en BESS, jämfört med FF som fastande på lokal optimala lösningar. Dock kunde resultaten också visa att laddnings- och urladdninsgschemat använt i fallstudien spelade en viktig roll angående effektiviteten med att installera en BESS. I vissa fall så användes BESS:en så lite som 17% av alla timmar på ett år (fall 2, optimering av NPV). Därför är det ett stort intresse att göra fortsatt forskning på andra laddnings- och urladdninsgscheman och dess roll med att hitta en optimal storlek på en BESS.

The aim of this report is to evaluate how a future commercially owned fleet of self-driving electric vehicles (EV:s) would be able to provide power in order to avoid power exceedances in the power grid. Exceedances occur when network agreements between grid operating companies are exceeded. Exceedances are problematic, since they infer penalty fees for the paying company and make dimensioning the grid capacity more difficult for the supplying company. Capacity deficiency regarding the infrastructure of the grid is expected to increase, likely resulting in higher penalty fees. Integrating transport and power systems by using self-driving EV:s as Mobility as a Service combined with Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology is a potential solution for this problem. By modeling the EV-fleet as the New York City taxi fleet, a usage pattern deemed to resemble Mobility as a Service is created. An economic value for the V2G service is estimated by comparing the availability of the EV-fleet with local exceedances from Uppsala as well as regional occurring exceedances. The highest income during the first quarter of 2019 is 96 000 SEK for the whole fleet, or 1100 SEK per EV and hour-long exceedance. The time of exceedance and the power magnitude have to interplay with the availability of the EV-fleet in order to enable the system. The EV battery capacity highly impacts the system, but is concluded to not be a limiting factor due to market logic. Lastly, key features such as market formation as well as geographical and technical aspects are presented and discussed.

District heating is today the most common way of providing a building with heat and hot water in Sweden. It is an environmentally friendly product mostly used with renewable fuel. However, at power peaks most companies use production units that are more expensive and worse for the environment and should therefore be avoided as much as possible. This can be done with a method called load management. When a power peak occurs, the heat supply to buildings connected to the district heating system can be temporarily reduced. The heat energy can later be returned when the heat demand is lower. Thanks to the heat inertia of the buildings, the indoor temperature will not fall within the time frame for the load management. Historical data has been analysed to identify when and why power peaks occur in the district heating network. Power peaks throughout the district heating network have proved difficult to identify. However, for individual consumers clear patterns of power peaks have emerged. These power peaks mainly occur because of large use of hot water but also because of the shifting outdoor temperature. In order to see how the production cost would differ from the actual outcome load management was applied for Gävle's district heating 2018. The load management was calculated manually by identifying the most expensive production unit on an hourly basis. If a cheaper production unit had the potential to deliver higher power the next hour, the production was moved to the cheaper production unit. The process was repeated for each hour during 2018. After carrying out load management for Gävle's district heating network, 1 457 MWh had been shifted to a cheaper production unit. This resulted in a financial saving of 1,0 % of the total production cost. The environmental savings showed a reduction from 6.1 to 5.9 g CO2eq /kWh a total of 197 tonne CO2eq. In the exact same way, a load management was performed for a scenario where Gävle and Sandviken's district heating network were connected. The gain for a load management with Sandviken will be considerably larger, a reduced production cost of 3.6 % is possible. The environmental savings showed a reduction from 8.4 to 7.8 CO2eq /kWh a total of 575 tonne CO2eq. For future efficient load management, buildings should be divided into different classes depending on the building's time constant. User patterns for the entire district heating network have proved difficult to detect. Artificial intelligence can be an option for short-term forecasting of the power output / Fjärrvärme är idag det vanligaste sättet att förse en bostad med värme och tappvarmvatten i Sverige. Fjärrvärmen är ofta en miljövänlig produkt som kan produceras av till exempel biobränsle- och avfallseldade kraftvärmeverk eller spillvärme från industrier. Vid tillfälligt högt effektbehov, effekttoppar, använder sig merparten av bolagen av dyrare produktionsenheter med större miljöpåverkan. Dyrare produktionsenheter bör undvikas i största möjliga mån och i detta syfte används metoden laststyrning. Vid en effekttopp kan värmetillförseln till byggnader sänkas temporärt för att återföras några timmar senare när effektbehovet är lägre. Tack vare värmetrögheten i byggnaderna bör inomhustemperaturen inte sjunka inom tidsramen för laststyrning. Statistik från Gävles fjärrvärmanvändning på timbasis under 2018 har analyserats för att identifiera när och varför effekttoppar sker. Effekttoppar i hela fjärrvärmenätet har visat sig svåra att identifiera. På lokal nivå har däremot tydliga mönster för effekttoppar framkommit. Dessa effekttoppar beror till största del av tappvarmvattenanvändning men även förändringar i utomhustemperaturen. För att se hur produktion och last kunde skiljt sig från det verkliga utfallet tillämpades laststyrning för Gävles fjärrvärmeproduktion 2018. Laststyrningen beräknades manuellt genom att den dyraste produktionsenheten identifierades på timbasis. Om en billigare produktionsenhet hade potential att leverera högre effekt nästkommande timmar försköts produktionen. Därefter upprepades processen för varje timme under 2018. Efter utförd laststyrning för Gävles fjärrvärmenät hade ca 1 457 MWh förskjutits till en billigare produktionsenhet. Det gav en ekonomisk besparing på 1,0 % av Gävles totala produktionskostnad. Den miljömässiga besparingen visade på en sänkning från 6,1 till 5,9 [g CO2ekv /kWh] sammanlagt 197 ton CO2ekv. På samma sätt utfördes en laststyrning för ett scenario där Gävle och Sandvikens fjärrvärmenät sammankopplats. Vinsten för en laststyrning med Sandviken blev betydligt större med en minskad produktionskostnaden på 3,6 %. Den miljömässiga påverkan sjönk från 8,4 till 7,8 g CO2ekv /kWh sammanlagt 575 ton CO2ekv. För en framtida effektiv laststyrning bör byggnader delas in i olika klasser beroende på byggnadens tidskonstant. Användarmönster för hela fjärrvärmenätet har visat sig svårt att identifiera. Artificiell intelligens kan vara ett alternativ i framtiden för att prognostisera effektuttaget

Due to climatic change, increasing thermal loads inbuildings and rising living standards, comfort cooling inbuildings is becoming increasingly important and the demand forcomfort cooling is expanding very quickly around the world. Theincreased cooling demand results in a peak in electrical powerdemand during the hottest summer hours. This peak presents newchallenges and uncertainties to electricity utilities and theircustomers. Cool thermal storage systems have not only the potential tobecome one of the primary solutions to the electrical powerimbalance between production and demand, but also shift coolingenergy use to off-peak periods and avoid peak demand charges.It increases the possibilities of utilizing renewable energysources and waste heat for cooling generation. In addition, acool storage can actually increase the efficiency of combinedheat and power (CHP) generation provided that heat drivencooling is coupled to CHP. Then, the cool storage may avoidpeaks in the heat demand for cooling generation, and this meansthat the CHP can operate at design conditions in most oftime. Phase Change Materials (PCMs) used for cool storage hasobtained considerable attention, since they can be designed tomelt and freeze at a selected temperature and have shown apromising ability to reduce the size of storage systemscompared with a sensible heat storage system because they usethe latent heat of the storage medium for thermal energystorage. The goal of this thesis is to define suitable PCM candidatesfor comfort cooling storage. The thesis work combines differentmethods to determine the thermophysical properties oftetradecane, hexadecane and their binary mixtures, anddemonstrates the potential of using these materials as PCM forcomfort cooling storage. The phase equilibrium of the binarysystem has been studied theoretically as well asexperimentally, resulting in the derivation of the phasediagram. With knowledge of the liquid-solid phase equilibriumcharacteristics and the phase diagram, an improvedunderstanding is provided for the interrelationships involvedin the phase change of the studied materials. It has beenindicated that except for the minimum-melting point mixture,all mixtures melt and freeze within a temperature range and notat a constant temperature, which is so far often assumed in PCMstorage design. In addition, the enthalpy change during thephase transition (heat of fusion) corresponds to the phasechange temperature range; thus, the storage density obtaineddepends on how large a part of the phase change temperaturerange is valid for a given application. Differential Scanning Calorimetery (DSC) is one frequentlyused method in the development of PCMs. In this thesis, it hasbeen found that varying results are obtained depending on theDSC settings throughout the measurements. When the DSC runs ata high heating/cooling rate it will lead to erroneousinformation. Also, the correct phase transition temperaturerange cannot be obtained simply from DSC measurement. Combiningphase equilibrium considerations with DSC measurements gives areliable design method that incorporates both the heat offusion and the phase change temperature range. The potential of PCM storage for peak shaving in differentcooling systems has been demonstrated. A Computer model hasbeen developed for rapid phase equilibrium calculation. The useof phase equilibrium data in the design of a cool storagesystem is presented as a general methodology. Keywords:Comfort cooling, peak shaving, PCM, coolthermal storage system, DSC, phase change temperature range,the heat of fusion, phase equilibrium, phase diagram. Language:English