Submitted by Katiane Souza (katyane.souza@gmail.com) on 2016-04-11T23:31:09Z No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 3689138 bytes, checksum: cdf97e8e24508f77275871be77b7e4c2 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-11T23:31:10Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 3689138 bytes, checksum: cdf97e8e24508f77275871be77b7e4c2 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007-02-15 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / In spite of the existence of works phytosociologys of the vegetation of the caatinga, still lack a lot for the knowledge of the caatingas as a completely. Consent exists among several authors in recognizing the heterogeneity floristic and physiognomies of the caatinga and in attributing to the climate and the soil, or still to the united action of these two factors, the main cause in the establishment of the caatinga types. The objective of the present work was to analyze the floristic composition, to compare the structure phytosociologycal, in the years of 2000 and 2005 and to evaluate the existent soil-vegetation relationship, the altitude and vegetable covering in one area caatinga in the farm Tamanduá, in the municipality of Santa Terezinha (PB), being adopted the method of plots, with 200m2 each, being made aleatory collections for 12 months. All shrub-trees vegetation with larger total height than 1 meter and circunference at breast height – CAP ³ 10 cm, alive or killed still foot, were counted and measured. Samples of surface soil (0-20 cm of depth) were collected from each plot for analyses of chemical and textural properties. Were defined three classes of altitudes with base in the estimates generated by interpolate: inferior, middleman and superior. Was sampling 1440 individuals, belonging to 25 species and 17 families, in the first rising, and 1704 individuals belonging to 27 species and 15 families, in the second rising. Caesalpinia pyramidalis was the most representative species in the two periods, what is due to the high values of density, dominance, frequency and distribution. The total basal area had a small increase between 2000 and 2005, passing of 10,73 m².ha-1 for 11,57 m².ha-1 an increment of 7,8 %. Of the individuals sampling, so much in the year of 2000 as in 2005, 92 % concentrated on the first four diameter classes, between 3 and 15 cm. Croton sonderianus Müll. Arg. presented the larger percentile of mortality. The number of individuals for hectare was of 1775. Of the found species, 67% can be considered as arborous and 33% as arbustive. Four families stopped about 54% of the individuals sampling: Euphorbiaceae, Caesalpinaceae, Mimosaceae and Bignoniaceae. The species that had the largest number of individuals sampling were: Caesalpinia pyramidalis Tul. (21,5%), Combretum leprosum Mart. (12,4%) and Croton sonderianus Müll. Arg. (8,5%). The species that more contributed with the inclusion of the new individual were: Combretum leprosum Mart., Croton sonderianus Müll. Arg., Caesalpinia pyramidalis Tul., Bauhinia cheilantha (Bong.) Stand. and Anadenanthera colubrine. The families that more stood in IVI were Caesalpiniaceae, Mimosaceae, Combretaceae and Euphorbiaceae, and Caesalpinia pyramidalis went to the species with larger density, being considered the three altitude levels. The chemical attributes of the soil, in the level of inferior altitude influenced in the individuals largest basal area and the chemical and physical attributes of the soil provided trees with larger IVI. / Apesar da existência de trabalhos fitossociológicos da vegetação da caatinga, ainda falta muito para o conhecimento das caatingas como um todo. Existe um consenso entre vários autores em reconhecer a heterogeneidade florística e fisionômica da caatinga e em atribuir ao clima e ao solo, ou ainda à ação conjunta destes dois fatores, a causa principal no estabelecimento dos tipos de caatinga. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi analisar a composição florística, comparar a estrutura fitossociologia, nos anos de 2000 e 2005 e avaliar a relação existente entre as propriedades edáficas, a altitude e cobertura vegetal em uma área de caatinga pertencente à Fazenda Tamanduá, no município de Santa Terezinha (PB), adotando-se o método de parcelas, com 200m2 cada, fazendo-se coletas aleatórias durante 12 meses. Todas as plantas arbustivo-arbóreas com altura total maior que 1,0 metro e circunferência a altura do peito – CAP ³ 10 cm, vivos ou mortos ainda pé, foram contados e medidos. Amostras de solo na profundidade de 0- 20 cm foram coletadas nas parcelas e submetidas à análise química e textural. Foram definidas três classes de altitudes com base nas estimativas geradas por interpolação: inferior, intermediária e superior. Foram amostrados 1440 indivíduos, pertencendo a 25 espécies e 17 famílias, no primeiro levantamento, e 1704 indivíduos pertencendo a 27 espécies e 15 famílias, no segundo levantamento. Caesalpinia pyramidalis foi a espécie mais representativa nos dois períodos, o que se deve aos valores elevados de densidade, dominância, freqüência e distribuição. A área basal total teve um pequeno aumento entre 2000 e 2005, passando de 10,73 m².ha-1 para 11,57 m².ha-1 um acréscimo de 7,8 %. Dos indivíduos amostrados, tanto no ano de 2000 como em 2005, 92 % se concentraram nas primeiras quatro classes diamétricas, entre 3 e 15 cm. Croton sonderianus Müll. Arg. apresentou maior percentual de mortalidade. O número de indivíduos por hectare foi de 1775. Das espécies encontradas, 67 % podem ser consideradas como arbóreas e 33 % como arbustivas. Quatro famílias detiveram cerca de 54 % dos indivíduos amostrados: Euphorbiaceae, Caesalpinaceae, Mimosaceae e Bignoniaceae. As espécies que tiveram o maior número de indivíduos amostrados foram: Caesalpinia pyramidalis Tul. (21,5 %), Combretum leprosum Mart (12,4 %) e Croton sonderianus Müll. Arg. (8,5%). As espécies que mais contribuíram com a inclusão de novos indivíduos foram: Combretum leprosum Mart., Croton sonderianus Müll. Arg., Caesalpinia pyramidalis Tul., Bauhinia cheilantha (Bong.) Stand. e Anadenanthera colubrina. As famílias que mais se destacaram em IVI foram Caesalpiniaceae, Mimosaceae, Combretaceae e Euphorbiaceae, e Caesalpinia pyramidalis foi à espécie com maior densidade, considerando-se os três níveis de altitude. Os atributos químicos do solo, no nível de altitude inferior influenciaram na maior área basal dos indivíduos e os atributos químicos e físicos do solo proporcionaram indivíduos arbóreos com maior IVI.

Peatlands are a globally important, terrestrial store of carbon and the UK is recognised as an internationally significant holder of peatlands. Of all the kinds of peatland found in the UK, blanket bogs are dominant, representing 87% of the UK’s peatland area. The UK’s peatlands, in contrast to many other areas of boreal/temperate peat, are relatively accessible and as such have been subject to land-management pressures for many thousands of years. These management pressures have led to the deterioration of many peatlands in the UK, with only 1% of England’s peatlands being considered ‘pristine’ in a Natural England report (Natural England, 2010). Climate change and increasing land-use pressures are predicted to affect all UK peatlands in coming years. As such, studies of the drivers of carbon cycling on UK peatlands are being undertaken in order to help in the construction of models to predict the dynamics of peatland carbon balance. These models will subsequently enable land-managers and policy makers to take informed decisions regarding peatland management and carbon storage. One such model of peatland carbon balance is the Durham Carbon Model, which uses a mass balance between fluxes of carbon in and out of a peatland in order to estimate its net carbon budget. While the Durham Carbon Model is able to deal with the effects of some aspects of land-management on peatland carbon balance, there remain a number of important drivers as yet unaccounted for in the model. As such, the remit of this thesis was to conduct in-situ, experiments in order to provide additional data on peatland carbon cycling with a view to incorporating these drivers into the model. Specifically, this research examines three areas as yet unaccounted for in the Durham Carbon Model: altitude, vegetation and diurnal processes. These factors are considered relative to CO2 flux and, in some cases, soil pore water dissolved organic carbon concentration. Additional experiments were also performed to determine whether empirical models of CO2 flux can be physically interpretable. Results obtained for this thesis suggest that the most important factor in predicting CO2 flux on blanket peat soils is vegetation type and vegetation mediated processes, i.e. photosynthetic controls on respiration. Moreover, the relationship between respiration and photosynthesis was found across a range of other factors and temporal scales. In addition to vegetation, altitude was found to significantly affect CO2 for some vegetation types. Therefore, both of these factors are to be incorporated into the Durham Carbon Model. Experiments suggested that empirical models of CO2 flux can be physically interpretable. The results of the diurnal experiment gave evidence to support the hypothesis that some component of the relationship between photosynthesis and respiration is temporally lagged, perhaps by 3 hours. However, the results were not unequivocal and thus further work is needed to fully examine some of the results presented herein.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(農学) / 甲第21968号 / 農博第2358号 / 新制||農||1070(附属図書館) / 学位論文||R1||N5219(農学部図書室) / 京都大学大学院農学研究科地域環境科学専攻 / (主査)教授 北山 兼弘, 教授 小杉 緑子, 教授 舟川 晋也 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Agricultural Science / Kyoto University / DGAM

Made available in DSpace on 2015-03-26T13:53:18Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 texto completo.pdf: 6697490 bytes, checksum: 432fa5fbd38ef6f966233ccfb63748b4 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-09-24 / The Serra Sul, located in the southeastern portion of the Pará State, is the largest plateau in Serra dos Carajás, comprising highly preserved ecosystems developed on ferruginous rocks. Despite the great geological and economic importance of this region, which is the largest deposit of iron ore in the world, there are very few pedological studies. The objective of the present work was to study the soils of the main geoenvironments of Serra Sul, in terms of their morphological, physical chemical, mineralogical and micromorphological characteristics, seeking to understand the main factors and processes in this singular landscape. Thirtheen soil profiles were described and analyzed. Plintossolos Pétricos, with continuous (lithoplintic) or fragmented (concretionary) horizon, is the main soil type. There is a clear influence of soils on the distribution of the different phyto-physiognomies. Latossolos Vermelhos occur on forested slopes while Organossolos Háplicos occurs on flat, poorly drained grasslands. In general soils are acid, dystric, with very low P avilability and high Al3+. Soils located close to caves, poorly frained areas and termite mounds have high levels of available P, evidencing the effect of the fauna on soil nutrient status. The high levels of total organic carbon (TOC) in all soils indicate conditions which favor the incorporation and conservation of vegetal residues as soil organic matter. Soils have high levels of iron oxide obtained by both sulphuic attack and DCB extractions and present very strong red color. Expressive amounts of maghemita occur and, together with hematite and goethite, comprise the mineralogy of the clay fraction. Microanalysis illustrate the high Fe2O3 levels (> 80%) and very low SiO2 and macronutrient levels, which is attributed to the chemical composition of the parent material (jaspelite), which is rich in iron oxide and poor in nutrientbearing primary minerals. The results indicate that the iron-rich parent material and the pedoclimate are the main factors determining the characteristics of the sudied soils. / A serra Sul, localizada no Sudeste do Estado do Pará, representa o mais extenso platô de canga na paisagem da serra dos Carajás, abrigando diversos ecossitemas desenvolvidos sobre formações ferríferas com elevado grau de conservação. Apesar da grande importância geológica e econômica da região (maiores jazidas de minério de ferro do mundo) e de outros minérios de importância econômica, são ainda escassos os estudos pedológicos nesta área. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo caracterizar os solos dos principais geoambientes que compõem a paisagem da serra Sul, quanto aos seus aspectos morfológicos, físicos, químicos, mineralógicos e micromorfológicos, procurando entender os principais fatores e processos pedogenéticos atuantes nestas condições singulares deste ambiente amazônico. Para tanto, foram coletadas e analisadas amostras de 13 (treze) perfis de solo, representativos dos diferentes geoambientes encontrados. Na serra Sul, predominam os Plintossolos Pétricos, ora com horizonte endurecido contínuo (litoplíntico) ora com horizonte endurecido fragmentado (concrecionário), existindo um forte controle dos solos sobre as diferentes fitofisionomias presentes nas áreas de canga, evidenciando uma relação direta entre a profundidade do solo e o porte da vegetação. São ainda observados Latossolos Vermelhos nas encostas e grotas florestadas e Organossolos Háplicos nas depressões e patamares campestres mal drenados. No geral, os solos são ácidos, distróficos, com P disponível muito baixo e teores elevados de Al3+ no complexo de troca. Foram observados teores elevados de P disponível nos solos coletados proximo às cavernas, nas áreas brejosas e nos montículos dos termiteiros, evidênciando a relação entre a fauna e o enriquecimento nutricional dos solos, conforme constatado pelas quantidades expressivas de fezes e guano de morceno observados nestes ambientes. Os teores de COT elevados em todos os solos estudados indicam condições favoráveis à incorporação dos resíduos vegetais à matéria orgânica do solo. Ao lado dos teores bastante elevados de óxido de ferro obtidos pelo ataque sulfúrico e pelo DCB, os solos da serra Sul diferenciam-se pela intensa cor vermelha e expressiva ocorrência de maghemita, que, ao lado de hematita e goethita, constituem os minerais dominantes na fração argila. Os resultados das microanálises ilustram os elevados teores de Fe2O3 (> 80%) e teores muito baixos de SiO2 e dos macronutrientes Ca2+, K+, Mg2+, Na+, características atribuídas à riqueza em óxidos de Fe do material de origem (Jaspelito), a pobreza em minerais primários ricos em bases e ao intenso intemperismo destes solos. Pelos resultados das análises conclui-se que o material de origem rico em ferro e o pedoclima são os principais fatores que controlam a diversidade de características observadas nestes solos.

O objetivo do presente trabalho é analisar as correlações existentes entre variáveis ambientais e a distribuição das espécies arbóreas. O estudo foi realizado em uma parcela permanente de 320 x 320 m, um fragmento de cerradão, situado na Estação Ecológica de Assis, Assis, SP. Coletaram-se amostras em cinco pontos de uma pedosequência, realizando-se análises químicas, físicas do solo e micromorfologicas. A vegetação foi amostrada em áreas de 314m² em torno de cada ponto de coleta do solo. Foram considerados todos os indivíduos vivos e com DAP (diâmetro à altura do peito) igual ou superior a 4,8cm e PAP (perímetro à altura do peito) 15 cm. Para analisar o banco de dados foram utilizadas três técnicas de análise multivariada: análise de componentes principais (PCA), para variáveis ambientais; análise de correspondência retificada (DCA), para variáveis florísticas; e análise de correspondência canônica (CCA), para verificar a possível associação entre estas duas variáveis. A análise dos componentes principais (PCA) demonstrou que a maioria das variáveis apresentaram correlação semelhante nas camadas superficiais (0-20 cm e 20-60 cm). Essa tendência não se repetiu nas demais profundidades (60-80 e >80 cm), evidenciando maior diferenciação do perfil de solo com o aumento da profundidade analisada. A análise de correspondência canônica (CCA) mostrou coerência nos padrões de distribuição das espécies em relação às variáveis ambientais do fragmento, caracterizada pelos atributos químicos e físicos, mas principalmente pelo regime hídrico dos solos, sugerindo que este seja um fator fortemente determinante na distribuição das espécies. / The objective of the present work is to analyze correlation the correlation between environmental variables and tree species distribution. The study was developed in a permanent plot of 320 x 320 m, in a cerrado fragment, located at Assis Ecological Station, Assis County, São Paulo. Soil samples were collected at five sites in a pedosequence, and submitted to chemical, physical and micromorphological analysis. The vegetation was sampled within 314 m2 area around each site where the soil sample was collected. All alive trees which diameter at breast height was equal or higher than 4,8 cm and perimeter at the breast height was equal or superior to 15 cm, were considered. To analyze the data bank, three multivariate techniques analysis were used: principal component analysis (PCA), to environment variables; certificated correspondent analysis (DCA), to floristic variables; and canonic correspondent analysis (CCA), to verify a possible association between two variables. The principal component analysis demonstrated that the majority of variables presented similar correlation within superficial layers (0-20 and 20-60 cm). This trend was not the same for the other layers (60-80 and > 80 cm), suggesting more changes in soil profile with soil depth. The correspondence canonic analysis showed to be reliable to demonstrate standard distribution of species in relation to environmental variables for fragment, characterized by soil physical and chemical attributes. But, the key character was the soil water regime, suggesting that the water availability had strong influence over species distributions.

O objetivo do presente trabalho é analisar as correlações existentes entre variáveis ambientais e a distribuição das espécies arbóreas. O estudo foi realizado em uma parcela permanente de 320 x 320 m, um fragmento de cerradão, situado na Estação Ecológica de Assis, Assis, SP. Coletaram-se amostras em cinco pontos de uma pedosequência, realizando-se análises químicas, físicas do solo e micromorfologicas. A vegetação foi amostrada em áreas de 314m² em torno de cada ponto de coleta do solo. Foram considerados todos os indivíduos vivos e com DAP (diâmetro à altura do peito) igual ou superior a 4,8cm e PAP (perímetro à altura do peito) 15 cm. Para analisar o banco de dados foram utilizadas três técnicas de análise multivariada: análise de componentes principais (PCA), para variáveis ambientais; análise de correspondência retificada (DCA), para variáveis florísticas; e análise de correspondência canônica (CCA), para verificar a possível associação entre estas duas variáveis. A análise dos componentes principais (PCA) demonstrou que a maioria das variáveis apresentaram correlação semelhante nas camadas superficiais (0-20 cm e 20-60 cm). Essa tendência não se repetiu nas demais profundidades (60-80 e >80 cm), evidenciando maior diferenciação do perfil de solo com o aumento da profundidade analisada. A análise de correspondência canônica (CCA) mostrou coerência nos padrões de distribuição das espécies em relação às variáveis ambientais do fragmento, caracterizada pelos atributos químicos e físicos, mas principalmente pelo regime hídrico dos solos, sugerindo que este seja um fator fortemente determinante na distribuição das espécies. / The objective of the present work is to analyze correlation the correlation between environmental variables and tree species distribution. The study was developed in a permanent plot of 320 x 320 m, in a cerrado fragment, located at Assis Ecological Station, Assis County, São Paulo. Soil samples were collected at five sites in a pedosequence, and submitted to chemical, physical and micromorphological analysis. The vegetation was sampled within 314 m2 area around each site where the soil sample was collected. All alive trees which diameter at breast height was equal or higher than 4,8 cm and perimeter at the breast height was equal or superior to 15 cm, were considered. To analyze the data bank, three multivariate techniques analysis were used: principal component analysis (PCA), to environment variables; certificated correspondent analysis (DCA), to floristic variables; and canonic correspondent analysis (CCA), to verify a possible association between two variables. The principal component analysis demonstrated that the majority of variables presented similar correlation within superficial layers (0-20 and 20-60 cm). This trend was not the same for the other layers (60-80 and > 80 cm), suggesting more changes in soil profile with soil depth. The correspondence canonic analysis showed to be reliable to demonstrate standard distribution of species in relation to environmental variables for fragment, characterized by soil physical and chemical attributes. But, the key character was the soil water regime, suggesting that the water availability had strong influence over species distributions.

A three-dimensional computational tool was developed that simulates the heat and mass transfer interaction in a soil-root-stem system (SRSS) for a tree in a seasonally varying deciduous forest. The development of the SRSS model involved the modification and coupling of existing heat and mass transport tools to reproduce the three-dimensional diurnal internal and external temperatures, internal fluid distribution, and heat flow in the soil, roots, and stems. The model also required the development of a parallel Monte-Carlo algorithm to simulate the solar and environmental radiation regime consisting of sky and forest radiative effects surrounding the tree. The SRSS was tested, component-wise verified, and quantitatively compared with published observations. The SRSS was applied to simulate a tree in a dense temperate hardwood forest that included the calculations of surface heat flux and comparisons between cases with fluid flow transport and periods of zero flow. Results from the winter simulations indicate that the primary influence of temperature in the trunk is solar radiation and radiative energy from the soil and surrounding trees. Results from the summer simulation differed with previous results, indicating that sap flow in the trunk altered the internal temperature change with secondary effects attributed to the radiative energy from the soil and surrounding trees. Summer simulation results also showed that with sap flow, as the soil around the roots become unsaturated, the flow path for the roots will be changed to areas where the soil is still saturated with a corresponding increase in fluid velocity.

Le changement climatique et les événements climatiques sévères tels que les périodes de sécheresse/humidification prolongées sont à l'origine du phénomène de retrait-gonflement dans les sols argileux. Ce phénomène est affecté par les interactions sol-végétation-atmosphère (SVA) et peut causer d’importants dommages structurels aux constructions légères telles que les bâtiments résidentiels. L’objectif de ce travail de recherche est de modéliser le comportement in situ du retrait-gonflement des sols gonflants dans un contexte SVA en se basent sur des outils numériques. Une méthode d'interaction sol-atmosphère est initialement présentée accompagnée d’un modèle couplé hydro-thermique du sol. Cette approche a été principalement mise en place afin de déterminer les conditions aux limites temporelles à la surface du sol en se basent sur la notion du bilan de masse et d'énergie pour déterminer a posteriori, les modifications spatio-temporelles de la succion du sol, de la teneur en eau et de la température. Cette approche a été validée à l'aide des observations in situ des sites instrumentés. Par la suite, l’influence de l’absorption d’eau par les végétations a été intégrée dans le terme source de l’écoulement de l’eau dans un milieu non saturé, à l’aide d’un modèle d’absorption d’eau de racine existant.Les variations temporelles de succion ont été postérieurement reliées au comportement volumique du sol en appliquant une approche simple développée à partir des résultats expérimentaux des essais de séchage/humidification réalisés dans la littérature. Les indices associés dans le plan indice des vides-log succion, ainsi que les paramètres complémentaires du modèle linéaire ont été corrélés aux paramètres géotechniques de base. L'approche proposée a été ultérieurement validée avec des données in situ fournies par la surveillance d’un site expérimental. Le site expérimental de Roaillan a été instrumenté afin de surveiller les modifications physiques du sol ainsi que le comportement structurel du bâtiment. Les comparaisons entre les résultats de la modélisation et les observations in situ de la succion du sol, la teneur en eau, la température et les mouvements du sol dans le temps ont montré une performance acceptable du modèle. L’approche a ensuite été appliquée pour étudier l’influence des projections climatiques futures (2050) sur les variables physiques et les mouvements du sol sur ce site. Trois scénarios RCP relatifs aux changements climatiques ont été examinés dans cette étude, qui ont révélé des différents comportements possibles à court terme et à long terme. Finalement, l'approche développée a été appliquée au territoire français en le divisant en six régions climatiques. Différents paramètres de sol ont été attribués à chacune de ces régions climatiques afin de définir les conditions de référence. En conséquence, l’influence de différents facteurs externes sur les mouvements du sol a été analysée sur une période donnée. Enfin, l’étude suggère les mesures adéquates à prendre pour minimiser l’amplitude du phénomène de retrait et de gonflement dans un contexte SVA. / Climate change and severe climatic events such as long drought/rehydration periods are at the origin of the shrinkage and swelling phenomenon in expansive soils. This phenomenon is affected by Soil-Vegetation-Atmosphere (SVA) interactions and can cause severe structural damage to lightly loaded constructions such as residential buildings. The objective of this re-search work is to simulate the in-situ behavior of the shrinkage-swelling in expansive soils in a SVA context using numerical tools. A soil-atmosphere interaction method is primarily presented along with a coupled hydro-thermal soil model. This approach was established in order to determine primarily, the natural time variable boundary conditions at the considered soil surface based on the mass and energy balance concept, and secondly to determine the spatial-temporal changes of the soil suction, water content and temperature. This approach was validated using in situ observations of monitored sites. Thereafter, the influence of the water uptake by vegetation was incorporated in the source term of the unsaturated water flow theory, using an existing root water uptake model. Subsequently, the temporal variations of the soil suction were related to the volume change behavior using a simple approach developed based on the experimental results of drying/wetting tests performed in the literature. The associated volumetric indices in the void ratio-log suction plan, along with the complementary parameters of the linear model were correlated with basic geotechnical parameters. The proposed approach was validated with in situ data provided from an experimental site. The Roaillan experimental site was instrumented in order to monitor the soil’s physical changes along with the structural behavior of the building. Comparisons between the simulated and observed soil suction, soil water content, temperature and soil movements in time and depth showed an acceptable performance of the predictions. The approach was then extended to study the influence of future climate projections (2050) on the soil’s physical variables and movements. Three RCP climate change scenarios were considered in this analysis which revealed different possible behavior in both short term and long term. Finally, the developed approach was applied to the French territory by dividing it to six different climatic regions. Different soil parameters were attributed to each of these climatic regions in order to set the reference condition. Thereafter, the influence of different external factors was analyzed on the soil movements over a chosen period. The study finally suggests the adequate actions to take for minimizing the amplitude of the shrinkage and swelling phenome-non in a SVA context.

Extensive deforestations, particularly in the (sub)tropics, have led to intense soil degradation and erosion with concomitant reduction in soil fertility. Reforestations or plantations on those degraded sites may provide effective measures to mitigate further soil degradation and erosion, and can lead to improved soil quality. However, a change in land use from, e.g., grassland to forest may have a crucial impact on water balance. This may affect water availability even under humid tropical climate conditions where water is normally not a limiting factor. In this context, it should also be considered that according to climate change projections rainfall may decrease in some of these regions. To mitigate climate change related problems (e.g. increases in erosion and drought), reforestations are often carried out. Unfortunately, those measures are seldom completely successful, because the environmental conditions and the plant specific requirements are not appropriately taken into account. This is often due to data-scarcity and limited financial resources in tropical regions. For this reason, innovative approaches are required that are able to measure environmental conditions quasi-continuously in a cost-effective manner. Simultaneously, reforestation measures should be accompanied by monitoring in order to evaluate reforestation success and to mitigate, or at least to reduce, potential problems associated with reforestation (e.g. water scarcity). To avoid reforestation failure and negative implications on ecosystem services, it is crucial to get insights into the water balance of the actual ecosystem, and potential changes resulting from reforestation. The identification and prediction of water balance changes as a result of reforestation under climate change requires the consideration of the complex feedback system of processes in the soil-vegetation-atmosphere continuum. Models that account for those feedback system are Soil-Vegetation-Atmosphere-Transfer (SVAT) models. For the before-mentioned reasons, this study targeted two main objectives: (i) to develop and test a method combination for site evaluation under data scarcity (i.e. study requirements) (Part I) and (ii) to investigate the consequences of prediction uncertainty of the SVAT model input parameters, which were derived using geophysical methods, on SVAT modeling (Part II). A water balance modeling approach was set at the center of the site evaluation approach. This study used the one-dimensional CoupModel, which is a SVAT model. CoupModel requires detailed spatial soil information for (i) model parameterization, (ii) upscaling of model results and accounting for local to regional-scale soil heterogeneity, and (iii) monitoring of changes in soil properties and plant characteristics over time. Since traditional approaches to soil and vegetation sampling and monitoring are time consuming and expensive (and therefore often limited to point information), geophysical methods were used to overcome this spatial limitation. For this reason, vis-NIR spectroscopy (visible to near-infrared wavelength range) was applied for the measurement of soil properties (physical and chemical), and remote sensing to derive vegetation characteristics (i.e. leaf area index (LAI)). Since the estimated soil properties (mainly texture) could be used to parameterize a SVAT model, this study investigated the whole processing chain and related prediction uncertainty of soil texture and LAI, and their impact on CoupModel water balance prediction uncertainty. A greenhouse experiment with bamboo plants was carried out to determine plant-physiological characteristics needed for CoupModel parameterization. Geoelectrics was used to investigate soil layering, with the intent of determining site-representative soil profiles for model parameterization. Soil structure was investigated using image analysis techniques that allow the quantitative assessment and comparability of structural features. In order to meet the requirements of the selected study approach, the developed methodology was applied and tested for a site in NE-Brazil (which has low data availability) with a bamboo plantation as the test site and a secondary forest as the reference (reference site). Nevertheless, the objective of the thesis was not the concrete modeling of the case study site, but rather the evaluation of the suitability of the selected methods to evaluate sites for reforestations and to monitor their influence on the water balance as well as soil properties. The results (Part III) highlight that one needs to be aware of the measurement uncertainty related to SVAT model input parameters, so for instance the uncertainty of model input parameters such as soil texture and leaf area index influences meaningfully the simulated model water balance output. Furthermore, this work indicates that vis-NIR spectroscopy is a fast and cost-efficient method for soil measurement, mapping, and monitoring of soil physical (texture) and chemical (N, TOC, TIC, TC) properties, where the quality of soil prediction depends on the instrument (e.g. sensor resolution), the sample properties (i.e. chemistry), and the site characteristics (i.e. climate). Additionally, also the sensitivity of the CoupModel with respect to texture prediction uncertainty with respect to surface runoff, transpiration, evaporation, evapotranspiration, and soil water content depends on site conditions (i.e. climate and soil type). For this reason, it is recommended that SVAT model sensitivity analysis be carried out prior to field spectroscopic measurements to account for site specific climate and soil conditions. Nevertheless, mapping of the soil properties estimated via spectroscopy using kriging resulted in poor interpolation (i.e. weak variograms) results as a consequence of a summation of uncertainty arising from the method of field measurement to mapping (i.e. spectroscopic soil prediction, kriging error) and site-specific ‘small-scale’ heterogeneity. The selected soil evaluation method (vis-NIR spectroscopy, structure comparison using image analysis, traditional laboratory analysis) showed that there are significant differences between the bamboo soil and the adjacent secondary forest soil established on the same soil type (Vertisol). Reflecting on the major study results, it can be stated that the selected method combination is a way forward to a more detailed and efficient way to evaluate the suitability of a specific site for reforestation. The results of this study provide insights into where and when during soil and vegetation measurements a high measurement accuracy is required to minimize uncertainties in SVAT modeling. / Umfangreiche Abholzungen, besonders in den (Sub-)Tropen, habe zu intensiver Bodendegradierung und Erosion mit einhergehendem Verlust der Bodenfruchtbarkeit geführt. Eine wirksame Maßnahme zur Vermeidung fortschreitender Bodendegradierung und Erosion sind Aufforstungen auf diesen Flächen, die bisweilen zu einer verbesserten Bodenqualität führen können. Eine Umwandlung von Grünland zu Wald kann jedoch einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf den Wasserhaushalt haben. Selbst unter humid-tropischen Klimabedingungen, wo Wasser in der Regel kein begrenzender Faktor ist, können sich Aufforstungen negativ auf die Wasserverfügbarkeit auswirken. In diesem Zusammenhang muss auch berücksichtigt werden, dass Klimamodelle eine Abnahme der Niederschläge in einigen dieser Regionen prognostizieren. Um die Probleme, die mit dem Klimawandel in Verbindung stehen zu mildern (z.B. Zunahme von Erosion und Dürreperioden), wurden und werden bereits umfangreiche Aufforstungsmaßnahmen durchgeführt. Viele dieser Maßnahmen waren nicht immer umfassend erfolgreich, weil die Umgebungsbedingungen sowie die pflanzenspezifischen Anforderungen nicht angemessen berücksichtigt wurden. Dies liegt häufig an der schlechten Datengrundlage sowie an den in vielen Entwicklungs- und Schwellenländern begrenzter verfügbarer finanzieller Mittel. Aus diesem Grund werden innovative Ansätze benötigt, die in der Lage sind quasi-kontinuierlich und kostengünstig die Standortbedingungen zu erfassen und zu bewerten. Gleichzeitig sollte eine Überwachung der Wiederaufforstungsmaßnahme erfolgen, um deren Erfolg zu bewerten und potentielle negative Effekte (z.B. Wasserknappheit) zu erkennen und diesen entgegenzuwirken bzw. reduzieren zu können. Um zu vermeiden, dass Wiederaufforstungen fehlschlagen oder negative Auswirkungen auf die Ökosystemdienstleistungen haben, ist es entscheidend, Kenntnisse vom tatsächlichen Wasserhaushalt des Ökosystems zu erhalten und Änderungen des Wasserhaushalts durch Wiederaufforstungen vorhersagen zu können. Die Ermittlung und Vorhersage von Wasserhaushaltsänderungen infolge einer Aufforstung unter Berücksichtigung des Klimawandels erfordert die Berücksichtigung komplex-verzahnter Rückkopplungsprozesse im Boden-Vegetations-Atmosphären Kontinuum. Hydrologische Modelle, die explizit den Einfluss der Vegetation auf den Wasserhaushalt untersuchen sind Soil-Vegetation-Atmosphere-Transfer (SVAT) Modelle. Die vorliegende Studie verfolgte zwei Hauptziele: (i) die Entwicklung und Erprobung einer Methodenkombination zur Standortbewertung unter Datenknappheit (d.h. Grundanforderung des Ansatzes) (Teil I) und (ii) die Untersuchung des Einflusses der mit geophysikalischen Methoden vorhergesagten SVAT-Modeleingangsparameter (d.h. Vorhersageunsicherheiten) auf die Modellierung (Teil II). Eine Wasserhaushaltsmodellierung wurde in den Mittelpunkt der Methodenkombination gesetzt. In dieser Studie wurde das 1D SVAT Model CoupModel verwendet. CoupModel benötigen detaillierte räumliche Bodeninformationen (i) zur Modellparametrisierung, (ii) zum Hochskalierung von Modellergebnissen unter Berücksichtigung lokaler und regionaler Bodenheterogenität, und (iii) zur Beobachtung (Monitoring) der zeitlichen Veränderungen des Bodens und der Vegetation. Traditionelle Ansätze zur Messung von Boden- und Vegetationseigenschaften und deren Monitoring sind jedoch zeitaufwendig, teuer und beschränken sich daher oft auf Punktinformationen. Ein vielversprechender Ansatz zur Überwindung der räumlichen Einschränkung sind die Nutzung geophysikalischer Methoden. Aus diesem Grund wurden vis-NIR Spektroskopie (sichtbarer bis nah-infraroter Wellenlängenbereich) zur quasi-kontinuierlichen Messung von physikalischer und chemischer Bodeneigenschaften und Satelliten-basierte Fernerkundung zur Ableitung von Vegetationscharakteristika (d.h. Blattflächenindex (BFI)) eingesetzt. Da die mit geophysikalisch hergeleiteten Bodenparameter (hier Bodenart) und Pflanzenparameter zur Parametrisierung eines SVAT Models verwendet werden können, wurde die gesamte Prozessierungskette und die damit verbundenen Unsicherheiten und deren potentiellen Auswirkungen auf die Wasserhaushaltsmodellierung mit CoupModel untersucht. Ein Gewächshausexperiment mit Bambuspflanzen wurde durchgeführt, um die zur CoupModel Parametrisierung notwendigen pflanzenphysio- logischen Parameter zu bestimmen. Geoelektrik wurde eingesetzt, um die Bodenschichtung der Untersuchungsfläche zu untersuchen und ein repräsentatives Bodenprofil zur Modellierung zu definieren. Die Bodenstruktur wurde unter Verwendung einer Bildanalysetechnik ausgewertet, die die qualitativen Bewertung und Vergleichbarkeit struktureller Merkmale ermöglicht. Um den Anforderungen des gewählten Standortbewertungsansatzes gerecht zu werden, wurde die Methodik auf einem Standort mit einer Bambusplantage und einem Sekundärregenwald (als Referenzfläche) in NO-Brasilien (d.h. geringe Datenverfügbarkeit) entwickelt und getestet. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war jedoch nicht die Modellierung dieses konkreten Standortes, sondern die Bewertung der Eignung des gewählten Methodenansatzes zur Standortbewertung für Aufforstungen und deren zeitliche Beobachtung, als auch die Bewertung des Einfluss von Aufforstungen auf den Wasserhaushalt und die Bodenqualität. Die Ergebnisse (Teil III) verdeutlichen, dass es notwendig ist, sich den potentiellen Einfluss der Messunsicherheiten der SVAT Modelleingangsparameter auf die Modellierung bewusst zu sein. Beispielsweise zeigte sich, dass die Vorhersageunsicherheiten der Bodentextur und des BFI einen bedeutenden Einfluss auf die Wasserhaushaltsmodellierung mit CoupModel hatte. Die Arbeit zeigt weiterhin, dass vis-NIR Spektroskopie zur schnellen und kostengünstigen Messung, Kartierung und Überwachung boden-physikalischer (Bodenart) und -chemischer (N, TOC, TIC, TC) Eigenschaften geeignet ist. Die Qualität der Bodenvorhersage hängt vom Instrument (z.B. Sensorauflösung), den Probeneigenschaften (z.B. chemische Zusammensetzung) und den Standortmerkmalen (z.B. Klima) ab. Die Sensitivitätsanalyse mit CoupModel zeigte, dass der Einfluss der spektralen Bodenartvorhersageunsicherheiten auf den mit CoupModel simulierten Oberflächenabfluss, Evaporation, Transpiration und Evapotranspiration ebenfalls von den Standortbedingungen (z.B. Klima, Bodentyp) abhängt. Aus diesem Grund wird empfohlen eine SVAT Model Sensitivitätsanalyse vor der spektroskopischen Feldmessung von Bodenparametern durchzuführen, um die Standort-spezifischen Boden- und Klimabedingungen angemessen zu berücksichtigen. Die Anfertigung einer Bodenkarte unter Verwendung von Kriging führte zu schlechten Interpolationsergebnissen in Folge der Aufsummierung von Mess- und Schätzunsicherheiten (d.h. bei spektroskopischer Feldmessung, Kriging-Fehler) und der kleinskaligen Bodenheterogenität. Anhand des gewählten Bodenbewertungsansatzes (vis-NIR Spektroskopie, Strukturvergleich mit Bildanalysetechnik, traditionelle Laboranalysen) konnte gezeigt werden, dass es bei gleichem Bodentyp (Vertisol) signifikante Unterschiede zwischen den Böden unter Bambus und Sekundärwald gibt. Anhand der wichtigsten Ergebnisse kann festgehalten werden, dass die gewählte Methodenkombination zur detailreicheren und effizienteren Standortuntersuchung und -bewertung für Aufforstungen beitragen kann. Die Ergebnisse dieser Studie geben einen Einblick darauf, wo und wann bei Boden- und Vegetationsmessungen eine besonders hohe Messgenauigkeit erforderlich ist, um Unsicherheiten bei der SVAT Modellierung zu minimieren. / Extensos desmatamentos que estão sendo feitos especialmente nos trópicos e sub-trópicos resultam em uma intensa degradação do solo e num aumento da erosão gerando assim uma redução na sua fertilidade. Reflorestamentos ou plantações nestas áreas degradadas podem ser medidas eficazes para atenuar esses problemas e levar a uma melhoria da qualidade do mesmo. No entanto, uma mudança no uso da terra, por exemplo de pastagem para floresta pode ter um impacto crucial no balanço hídrico e isso pode afetar a disponibilidade de água, mesmo sob condições de clima tropical úmido, onde a água normalmente não é um fator limitante. Devemos levar também em consideração que de acordo com projeções de mudanças climáticas, as precipitações em algumas dessas regiões também diminuirão agravando assim, ainda mais o quadro apresentado. Para mitigar esses problemas relacionados com as alterações climáticas, reflorestamentos são frequentemente realizados mas raramente são bem-sucedidos, pois condições ambientais como os requisitos específicos de cada espécie de planta, não são devidamente levados em consideração. Isso é muitas vezes devido, não só pela falta de dados, como também por recursos financeiros limitados, que são problemas comuns em regiões tropicais. Por esses motivos, são necessárias abordagens inovadoras que devam ser capazes de medir as condições ambientais quase continuamente e de maneira rentável. Simultaneamente com o reflorestamento, deve ser feita uma monitoração a fim de avaliar o sucesso da atividade e para prevenir, ou pelo menos, reduzir os problemas potenciais associados com o mesmo (por exemplo, a escassez de água). Para se evitar falhas e reduzir implicações negativas sobre os ecossistemas, é crucial obter percepções sobre o real balanço hídrico e as mudanças que seriam geradas por esse reflorestamento. Por este motivo, esta tese teve como objetivo desenvolver e testar uma combinação de métodos para avaliação de áreas adequadas para reflorestamento. Com esse intuito, foi colocada no centro da abordagem de avaliação a modelagem do balanço hídrico local, que permite a identificação e estimação de possíveis alterações causadas pelo reflorestamento sob mudança climática considerando o sistema complexo de realimentação e a interação de processos do continuum solo-vegetação-atmosfera. Esses modelos hidrológicos que investigam explicitamente a influência da vegetação no equilíbrio da água são conhecidos como modelos Solo-Vegetação-Atmosfera (SVAT). Esta pesquisa focou em dois objetivos principais: (i) desenvolvimento e teste de uma combinação de métodos para avaliação de áreas que sofrem com a escassez de dados (pré-requisito do estudo) (Parte I), e (ii) a investigação das consequências da incerteza nos parâmetros de entrada do modelo SVAT, provenientes de dados geofísicos, para modelagem hídrica (Parte II). A fim de satisfazer esses objetivos, o estudo foi feito no nordeste brasileiro,por representar uma área de grande escassez de dados, utilizando como base uma plantação de bambu e uma área de floresta secundária. Uma modelagem do balanço hídrico foi disposta no centro da metodologia para a avaliação de áreas. Este estudo utilizou o CoupModel que é um modelo SVAT unidimensional e que requer informações espaciais detalhadas do solo para (i) a parametrização do modelo, (ii) aumento da escala dos resultados da modelagem, considerando a heterogeneidade do solo de escala local para regional e (iii) o monitoramento de mudanças nas propriedades do solo e características da vegetação ao longo do tempo. Entretanto, as abordagens tradicionais para amostragem de solo e de vegetação e o monitoramento são demorados e caros e portanto muitas vezes limitadas a informações pontuais. Por esta razão, métodos geofísicos como a espectroscopia visível e infravermelho próximo (vis-NIR) e sensoriamento remoto foram utilizados respectivamente para a medição de propriedades físicas e químicas do solo e para derivar as características da vegetação baseado no índice da área foliar (IAF). Como as propriedades estimadas de solo (principalmente a textura) poderiam ser usadas para parametrizar um modelo SVAT, este estudo investigou toda a cadeia de processamento e as incertezas de previsão relacionadas à textura de solo e ao IAF. Além disso explorou o impacto destas incertezas criadas sobre a previsão do balanço hídrico simulado por CoupModel. O método geoelétrico foi aplicado para investigar a estratificação do solo visando a determinação de um perfil representante. Já a sua estrutura foi explorada usando uma técnica de análise de imagens que permitiu a avaliação quantitativa e a comparabilidade dos aspectos estruturais. Um experimento realizado em uma estufa com plantas de bambu (Bambusa vulgaris) foi criado a fim de determinar as caraterísticas fisiológicas desta espécie que posteriormente seriam utilizadas como parâmetros para o CoupModel. Os resultados do estudo (Parte III) destacam que é preciso estar consciente das incertezas relacionadas à medição de parâmetros de entrada do modelo SVAT. A incerteza presente em alguns parâmetros de entrada como por exemplo, textura de solo e o IAF influencia significantemente a modelagem do balanço hídrico. Mesmo assim, esta pesquisa indica que vis-NIR espectroscopia é um método rápido e economicamente viável para medir, mapear e monitorar as propriedades físicas (textura) e químicas (N, TOC, TIC, TC) do solo. A precisão da previsão dessas propriedades depende do tipo de instrumento (por exemplo da resolução do sensor), da propriedade da amostra (a composição química por exemplo) e das características das condições climáticas da área. Os resultados apontam também que a sensitividade do CoupModel à incerteza da previsão da textura de solo em respeito ao escoamento superficial, transpiração, evaporação, evapotranspiração e ao conteúdo de água no solo depende das condições gerais da área (por exemplo condições climáticas e tipo de solo). Por isso, é recomendado realizar uma análise de sensitividade do modelo SVAT prior a medição espectral do solo no campo, para poder considerar adequadamente as condições especificas do área em relação ao clima e ao solo. Além disso, o mapeamento de propriedades de solo previstas pela espectroscopia usando o kriging, resultou em interpolações de baixa qualidade (variogramas fracos) como consequência da acumulação de incertezas surgidas desde a medição no campo até o seu mapeamento (ou seja, previsão do solo via espectroscopia, erro do kriging) e heterogeneidade especifica de uma pequena escala. Osmétodos selecionados para avaliação das áreas (vis-NIR espectroscopia, comparação da estrutura de solo por meio de análise de imagens, análise de laboratório tradicionais) revelou a existência de diferenças significativas entre o solo sob bambu e o sob floresta secundária, apesar de ambas terem sido estabelecidas no mesmo tipo de solo (vertissolo). Refletindo sobre os principais resultados do estudo, pode-se afirmar que a combinação dos métodos escolhidos e aplicados representam uma forma mais detalhada e eficaz de avaliar se uma determinada área é adequada para ser reflorestada. Os resultados apresentados fornecem percepções sobre onde e quando, durante a medição do solo e da vegetação, é necessário se ter uma precisão mais alta a fim de minimizar incertezas potenciais na modelagem com o modelo SVAT.

Saltwater Forest is a Dacrydium cupressinum-dominated lowland forest covering 9000 ha in south Westland, South Island, New Zealand. Four thousand hectares is managed for sustainable production of indigenous timber. The aim of this study was to provide an integrated analysis of soils, soil-landform relationships, and soil-vegetation relationships at broad and detailed scales. The broad scale understandings provide a framework in which existing or future studies can be placed and the detailed studies elucidate sources of soil and forest variability. Glacial landforms dominate. They include late Pleistocene lateral, terminal and ablation moraines, and outwash aggradation and degradation terraces. Deposits and landforms from six glacial advances have been recognised ranging from latest Last (Otira) Glaciation to Penultimate (Waimea) Glaciation. The absolute ages of landforms were established by analysis of the thickness and soil stratigraphy of loess coverbeds, augmented with radiocarbon dating and phytolith and pollen analysis. In the prevailing high rainfall of Westland soil formation is rapid. The rate of loess accretion in Saltwater Forest (ca. 30 mm ka⁻¹) has been low enough that soil formation and loess accretion took place contemporaneously. Soils formed in this manner are known as upbuilding soils. The significant difference between upbuilding pedogenesis and pedogenesis in a topdown sense into an existing sediment body is that each subsoil increment of an upbuilding soil has experienced processes of all horizons above. In Saltwater Forest subsoils of upbuilding soils are strongly altered because they have experienced the extremely acid environment of the soil surface at some earlier time. Some soil chronosequence studies in Westland have included upbuilding soils formed in loess as the older members of the sequence. Rates and types of processes inferred from these soils should be reviewed because upbuilding is a different pedogenic pathway to topdown pedogenesis. Landform age and morphology were used as a primary stratification for a study of the soil pattern and nature of soil variability in the 4000 ha production area of Saltwater Forest. The age of landforms (> 14 ka) and rapid soil formation mean that soils are uniformly strongly weathered and leached. Soils include Humic Organic Soils, Perch-gley Podzols, Acid Gley Soils, Allophanic Brown Soils, and Orthic or Pan Podzols. The major influence on the nature of soils is site hydrology which is determined by macroscale features of landforms (slope, relief, drainage density), mesoscale effects related to position on landforms, and microscale influences determined by microtopography and individual tree effects. Much of the soil variability arises at microscales so that it is not possible to map areas of uniform soils at practical map scales. The distribution of soil variability across spatial scales, in relation to the intensity of forest management, dictates that it is most appropriate to map soil complexes with boundaries coinciding with landforms. Disturbance of canopy trees is an important agent in forest dynamics. The frequency of forest disturbance in the production area of Saltwater Forest varies in a systematic way among landforms in accord with changes in abundance of different soils. The frequency of forest turnover is highest on landforms with the greatest abundance of extremely poorly-drained Organic Soils. As the abundance of better-drained soils increases the frequency of forest turnover declines. Changes in turnover frequency are reflected in the mean size and density of canopy trees (Dacrydium cupressinum) among landforms. Terrace and ablation moraine landforms with the greatest abundance of extremely poorly-drained soils have on average the smallest trees growing most densely. The steep lateral moraines, characterised by well drained soils, have fewer, larger trees. The changes manifested at the landform scale are an integration of processes operating over much shorter range as a result of short-range soil variability. The systematic changes in forest structure and turnover frequency among landforms and soils have important implications for sustainable forest management.