Soundscape Ecology, the physical combination of sounds at a particular time and place, is a rapidly growing field. As acoustic technology advances, several possible future uses of passive acoustic monitoring (PAM), such as biodiversity counts and monitoring of habitat health, are being explored. This thesis is divided into two chapters; each is a stand-alone paper. The first chapter provides a review of soundscape ecology, ambient sound, current recording methods and data analysis used in PAM studies, and identifies several major future recommendations for the field. One of these recommendations is to standardize recording methods and indices used during analysis in long-term studies. The second chapter analyzes a 55-minute continuous recording on a coral reef in Tunicate Cove, Belize in 1996 by Professor P. Lobel. This recording was then subsampled with several intermittent recording schedules to explore the amount of acoustic information lost as periods of active and inactive recording vary. The continuous recording consisted of a high frequency band (3-4 kHz), which may correspond to abiotic sounds, and a low frequency band (0.1-0.5 kHz), which generally corresponds to biotic sounds. Two recording schedules, 30 seconds every 4 minutes and 2 minutes every 10 minutes, were significantly correlated with the continuous recording. The statistical significance of the other five recording schedules varied among the three parameters tested in this study (average power (dB), average entropy, and aggregate entropy).

<p><b></b>Passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) is a tool with immense potential to evaluate the response of wildlife to ecosystem disturbances. PAM allows to evaluate wildlife dynamics by means of acoustic indices that estimate the diversity or complexity of sounds in a recording, as well as to study ecological aspects at the species level by training machine learning-based automatic acoustic detector. In this study, five deep learning approaches for automatic song detection were evaluated of the near-threatened Bachman's Sparrow in data scarcity scenarios, and then used this classifier to study the response of this bird to the number of days following a prescribed burn in six subtropical habitats in central Florida. At the same time, the response of avifauna acoustic activity to prescribed burning was quantified by means of three of the most used acoustic indices used in the literature (Acoustic Complexity Index, Acoustic Diversity Index and Bioacoustic Index). I found that it is possible to construct competitive birdsong detectors with small datasets using pre-trained models regardless. Furthermore, the use of data augmentation can lead to a detriment of the detector performance, especially of lower quality recordings, and that increasing the dataset does not necessarily increase the generalizability of the model. On the other hand, I found that unlike Acoustic Diversity Index, the Bioacoustic and Acoustic Complexity indices are negatively correlated with time after a burn, the same trend that Bachman's Sparrow presence showed, even though it was more influenced by habitat type than by the effect of the prescribed burns. This study shows the potential of tools including automatic song detection and acoustic indices to model at different scales the dynamics of avifauna in response to ecosystem disturbances. Their development can provide efficient tools for the study and conservation of both threatened wildlife species and the ecosystems they inhabit.</p>

This study explores the musical practice of designing a soundscape with the theoretical and methodological starting points of world building and soundscape ecology. Artistically, this exploration consists of the creation of three recordings each one portraying different narratives within the imagined and designed environment with theme of Human impact on the Swedish forest’s biodiversity. Methods and theories of world building elements are used to conceptualize the environment, while the approaches of soundscape ecology are used to portray this conceptualization during the recording process and when analyzing the results. The music was co-created in the studio through improvisation and the use of what I call multi- sensory material. The improvisational and material practice stemmed from my focus on the interrelationship between the conceptualized environment and the physical studio environment. A collaborative effort was made to portray and explore the sonic possibilities of the environment by evoking associations and reflections on the ecological interaction, meaning that between organisms and their environment. The purpose of this study is to examine the experience and value of designing a soundscape with world building and soundscape ecology as theoretical and methodological starting points. I believe many music creators hear their music as soundscapes and I want to contribute with knowledge to this phenomenon by theorizing the elements that compose a dynamic soundscape. The name of the thesis “Hearing the Forest for the Trees” is a reference to the idiomatic expression “seeing the forest for the trees”, meaning missing the greater picture by focusing too much on details. The expression relates to the knowledge gained in this project regarding the importance of conceptualizing the soundscape’s environment in order to create sound interaction with intention, and getting a wider perspective on how to design a rich sounding soundscape. / Denna uppsats utforskar den musikaliska praktiken i att designa ett ljudlandskap med teoretiska och metodologiska utgångspunkter från världsbyggande och ljudlandskapsekologi. Konstnärligt består detta utforskande av skapandet av tre inspelningar som var och en porträtterar olika berättelser inom den tänkta och designade miljön med temat: mänsklig påverkan på den svenska skogens biologiska mångfald. Metoder och teorier för världsbyggande används för att konceptualisera miljön, medan ljudlandskapsekologi används för att skildra denna konceptualisering under inspelning och senare analys. Musiken skapades tillsammans med musikerna genom improvisation och användandet av multisensoriskt material i studion. Improvisations- och materialpraktiken grundades ur mitt fokus på förhållandet mellan den konceptualiserade miljön och den fysiska studiomiljön. Genom samarbete skildrades och utforskades miljöns ljudmöjligheter genom att väcka associationer och reflektioner kring den ekologiska interaktionen, dvs den mellan organismer och deras miljö. Mitt huvudsakliga syfte i detta projekt är att utforska upplevelsen av och värdet i att designa ett ljudlandskap med världsbyggande och ljudlandskapsekologiska teorier och metoder som utgångspunkter. Jag tror att många musiker och producenter ser på sin musik som ljudlandskap och jag vill bidra med kunskap till detta fenomen genom att teoretisera de element som utgör ett ljudlandskap. Namnet på uppsatsen "Höra skogen för alla träd" är en referens till det idiomatiska uttrycket ”inte se skogen för alla träd”, vilket betyder att missa helhetsbilden genom att fokusera för mycket på detaljer. Uttrycket relaterar till den kunskap som erhållits i detta projekt om vikten av att konceptualisera ett ljudlandskaps miljö för att skapa ljudinteraktion med intention, och få ett bredare perspektiv på att designa ett rikt ljudlandskap.

Urbana grönområden med hälsofrämjande ljudmiljöer riskerar att försvinna eftersom det finns en trend att bygga tätare städer, vilket kan ge ökade bullerföroreningar. I svenska kommuner är ambitionen att skydda och behålla sådana ljudmiljöer. För denna undersökningen besöktes fyra områden i Malmö för att utvärdera deras ljudmiljöer. Metoderna som användes var ljudnivåmätningar, ljudlandskapsekologiska metoder (ljudupptagningar, spektrogram, akustiska index) och applicering av åtta parkkaraktärer översatta i ljudlandskapsterminologi. Användningen av de åtta karaktärerna i ljudlandskapterminologi kan vara ett effektivt sätt att utvärdera ljudmiljöer, men har troligen svårt att konkurrera med redan etablerade upplevelse- och hälsoeffektbaserade studietyper. Ljudlandskapsekologi kan utgöra en ny metod för vissa delar av utvärdering av ljudmiljöer, eftersom den har effektiva metoder för datainsamling, analys, och kartläggning, men kräver troligen ett utökat perspektiv i de bedömningsgrunder som finns i europeisk och svensk bullerlagstiftning. Ljudlandskap bör betraktas som resurser med ekologiska och sociala värden. / Urban green areas and their sound environments are linked to many health benefits. These areas are threatened to disappear with densifying cities and increasing noise pollution. In Swedish municipalities the aim is to preserve such areas. For this study four areas were visited in Malmö to evaluate their sound environments. The methods included sound measurements, soundscape ecology methods (sound recordings, spectrograms, acoustic indices) and the use of eight characteristics of green areas together with soundscape terminology. Using the eight characteristics together with soundscape terminology might be an effective way of evaluating sound environments, but will probably not compete with other perception-based and health impact assessment methods. On the other hand, soundscape ecology methods could play an important role in some parts of the quality assessment of sound environments, because of highly effective data collection, analysis and mapping, but requires an extension of the quality values in Swedish and European noise policy. Soundscapes should be viewed as resources with ecological and social values.

More and more attention of scientists and artists is paid to the effect of sound to human and ecosystems. Due to technology development and growing urgency of human impact new approaches are being formed. This thesis is based on concepts of acoustics ecology by R. M. Schafer. In addition to noise mapping, Czech geographical research does not reflect the growing urgency of sound environment issues. In this thesis I present terminology, concepts and some methods which are used in acoustic ecology or soundscape ecology. A literature search shows the application of these terminology, concepts and methods in a geographical research, specifically in urban and landscape planning, geography of tourism, leisure, health geography or landscape ecology. In an empirical part I followed a pioneering idea of acoustic landscape typology. I used qualitative research, listening walk and narrative conversation, to obtain data about soundscapes. Through these data I critically evaluated and compared acoustic typology of landscape by Hendrych and Hynek (2008). I used recording of soundscapes and spectrograms as secondary methods. Recordings and spectrograms are availabled in ArcGIS Online application. I found out the typology according to Hendrych and Hynek appropriately describes soundscapes from the perspective of...

An increasing amount of both physical and mental layers keep distancing urban dwellers from the biophysical envi- ronment that we often call nature. Environmental psycholo- gists have coined the term ‘extinction of experience’ to de- scribe the decreasing amount of encounters urban dwellers have with the natural environment. With the depletion of these experiences we have less relation to the natural world. And what we cannot relate to, we find hard to value. The intent has been to explore new ways urban dwelling adults could interact with the natural environment in order to help them relate to the abstract notion of biodiversity. The final concept is inspired by expert and user insights gathered through ethnographic research methods. The resulting design concept is a service and product eco- system that is based in the field of soundscape ecology.

La compréhension de la dynamique spatiale et temporelle des peuplements benthiques qu’elle soit naturelle et induite par des forçages anthropiques, nécessite de nouvelles méthodes d'observation du benthos avec des besoins affichés de haute résolution temporelle et de longues périodes de mesures. L'enregistrement et l’analyse des sons produits dans l’environnement marin donnent accès au paysage acoustique, et notamment à l’une de ses composantes biologiques la biophonie benthique. Observer les variabilités spatio-temporelles de cette biophonie benthique, afin de contribuer à l'évaluation de la structure, du fonctionnement, de l’état et des évolutions du compartiment benthique, constitue l'objectif principal de la thèse. Pour ce faire nous avons développé deux outils permettant d'évaluer la variabilité spatiale de ces émissions avec un ou plusieurs capteurs. Le premier est un descripteur de la forme des spectres des impulsions du benthos permettant de mieux caractériser la diversité de la biophonie benthique. Le second est une méthode de localisation tridimensionnelle des sources sonores benthiques et de cartographie de cette biophonie pour des échelles spatiales allant de 500 mètres jusqu’à 5 mètres. En utilisant ces deux outils, nous avons démontré la faisabilité de l'observation du benthos au travers de sa biophonie sur des sites spécifiques. Dans une partie applicative, nous nous sommes intéressés aux projets de site de production d’énergies marines renouvelables et à la compréhension et à l’observation de leurs impacts sur la faune marine. Sur un site atelier de géométrie similaire à celle d’une ferme d’éoliennes offshores, nous avons défini, réalisé et analysé une preuve de concept pour l’observabilité d’un effet de type binaire : présence ou absence de faune fixée dans une surface sentinelle de quelques mètres carré. Les travaux de thèse ont été conclus par une étude mesurant le niveau sonore rayonné par une hydrolienne en phase de production d’énergie (Paimpol-Bréhat) puis évaluant les impacts acoustiques sur trois compartiments biologiques : les mammifères marins, les poissons et les invertébrés. / Understanding the spatial and temporal dynamics of benthic populations, both natural and induced by anthropogenic pressures, requires new observation methods with high temporal resolution and long periods of measurement. The recording and analysis of sounds produced in the marine environment give access to the soundscape, and in particular to one of its biological components, the benthic biophony. Observing the spatiotemporal variability of this benthic biophony, in order to contribute to the evaluation of the structure, functioning, state and evolution of the benthic compartment, is the main objective of the thesis. To do this we have developed two tools to evaluate the spatial variability of these emissions with one sensor or more. The first is a descriptor of the shape of the spectra of the benthic snaps allowing to better characterize the diversity of benthic biophony. The second is a method of three-dimensional localization of the benthic sound sources and mapping of this biophony for spatial scales ranging from 500 meters to 5 meters. Using these two tools, we have demonstrated the feasibility of benthos monitoring through its biophony at specific sites. In an applicative part, we were interested in sites of production of marine renewable energies and the understanding and observation of their impacts on the marine fauna. On a workshop site of geometry similar to that of an offshore wind farm, we defined, realized and analyzed a proof of concept for the observability of a binary impact: presence or absence of fixed benthic fauna in a sentinel area of a few square meters. The thesis work was concluded by a study measuring the sound level radiated by a tidal current turbine in the energy production phase (Paimpol-Bréhat) and then evaluating the acoustic impacts on three biological compartments: marine mammals, fish and invertebrates.

<div>Biodiversity loss is the silent crisis of the 21st century. Human activities are drastically altering the diversity of life on Earth, yet the extent of this transformation is shrouded by our limited information on biodiversity and how it is changing. Emerging technologies may be suited to fill this information gap, and as a result increase our capacity to measure and manage natural systems. Acoustic monitoring is a remote sensing technique that is rapidly reshaping the temporal and spatial scales with which we can assess animal biodiversity. Through recording and analyzing soundscapes—the collection of sounds occurring at a given place and time—we can assess biodiversity, habitat condition, and environmental change. However, the relationships between soundscapes and these three ecological dimensions are still in the early phases of categorization, especially in aquatic systems. </div><div><br></div><div>This dissertation investigates how soundscapes can be used to measure biodiversity, habitat condition, and environmental change in aquatic habitats. It addresses several knowledge gaps: First, I develop a framework for classifying unknown sounds within a soundscape, which I use to measure the acoustic diversity and dynamics within a tropical freshwater wetland. Second, I demonstrate that soundscapes can reflect the resilience of animal communities following disturbance events. Altered soundscapes revealed that Hurricane Maria, which swept through Puerto Rico in September 2017, impacted dry forest animal communities more than adjacent coral reef communities. Third, in kelp forest habitats off the coast of California, USA, I showed that soundscape variables correlated with ecological variables associated with regime shift in kelp forests, including urchin density, kelp cover, and fish diversity. Overall, this dissertation demonstrates that soundscape recording and analysis is a promising way to assess the ecological conditions of aquatic systems. </div>

<p>  </p> <p>The rise of technology as a data source for ecological research and biodiversity conservation has led to a host of new opportunities, and new challenges, for researchers, conservationists, policymakers, and land managers. As these technologies have become more common and more capable, researchers need improved methods and improved theoretical frameworks to integrate these technologies with each other; with social science and policy; and with land-use planning. This thesis proposes several of these conceptual and theoretical frameworks—one for integration of heterogeneous data and another for the integration of ecological data with economic decision-making and policy analysis. It then suggests new methodologies for data quality assurance. Lastly, it demonstrates the applicability of acoustic monitoring in a key land-use context: agriculture in a premium crop that is grown in global biodiversity hotspots. </p>

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