The study developed from realisation that there is no information available about strategies or processes in the iBT speaking scoring rubrics, although ETS (Educational Testing Service) claims that the iBT speaking test is designed to measure strategic processes, which is one constructs of academic proficiency. Therefore, the study investigates which strategic processes are used to complete given speaking tasks. This would provide evidence to help in the evaluation of the validity claims proposed by the test designers. Six Korean participants, studying at English-medium universities, completed 2 independent tasks and 2 integrated tasks both in a test and in their class. Participants’ speech samples were collected during the performances and stimulated recall verbalisation was conducted after they had completed the tasks. Speech samples were coded into five categories: approach, compensation, cognitive, metacognitive strategies and feelings. Consequently, the study examined how strategies reported through stimulated recalls were present in actual speech. The findings showed that metacognitive strategies were used most frequently under both conditions. Fair-level speakers employed more strategies in the test, while good-level speakers used more strategies in the class. Moreover, integrated task types elicited more strategy use for both conditions. Speakers reported that they felt significantly more negative under test conditions than in the class. More importantly, two conditions shared 67.74% of the strategy types, and 84% of the strategy types used in the test were also used in the classroom, which may strengthen the validity of the iBT speaking test in terms of strategy use. Finally, evidences of strategy use were identified in actual speech, which can open the way to operationalised strategy use assessment in speaking test. However, the figure of evidenced strategy use was very low: 5.28% and 2.66% respectively in the test and in the class. It is recommended that future research be carried out with a large number of participants in order to generalise strategy use in speaking performance. Moreover, further studies might be conducted to examine the significance of observable strategic evidence in speech, to inform decisions to include strategies in the scoring rubrics.

The empirical study carried out in this degree project is exploratory, and its main objective is to investigate the development of strategic competence in oral production as it occurs in two different communication modes, namely, synchronous computer mediated communication (SCMC) and face-to-face (FTF) communication. More specifically, this study compares the instances of different communication strategies (CS) used to negotiate meaning. This aim was approached through the following research questions: RQ (1): Which types of communication strategies do Swedish learners of English use to enhance interaction in different communication modes? RQ (2): How frequently do they use these strategies in each communication mode? RQ (3): Which communicative mode creates an environment more favorable for the occurrence ofNofM? The results of the study demonstrated that the CS the participants used were: clarification request, appeals for assistance, confirmation check, provision of assistance, self-correction, use of Swedish (L1), topic shifting and circumlocution. The latter two were only used in FTF communication, making this the communication mode with the highest variety of CS types. Concerning our second RQ the frequency of usage of the aforementioned CS, the results suggest that the frequency differed between the two communicative modes a part fromappeals for assistance and provisions of assistance. In turn, self-correction, topic shift and circumlocution had a higher frequency in FTF communication, whereas clarification requests, confirmation checks and usage of Swedish had a higher occurrence rate in SCMC. Concerning our third RQ on the one hand, the results in favor of FTF communication were reflected in the higher response rate of appeals for assistance and the use of circumlocution. On the other hand, the results supporting SCMC were seen in the higher frequency and especially in the use of the L1, in the lesser occurrence of self-correction of faulty forms, as well as the higher number of turns per minute and higher percentage of turns used for CS. Based on these results, the present study would seem to point at SCMC as the most favorable communication mode for NofM.

It is desirable that language learners develop their strategic competence, which allows them to communicate the intended meaning when facing breakdowns in communication. One of the manifestations of strategic competence is the use of communication strategies. The present thesis aims to observe the use of communication strategies by Czech learners of English. It focuses on the types of communication strategies used in learner language and on the relationship between their use and proficiency, fluency and task types. The data were extracted from 14 transcripts of interviews with students of English philology recorded for the purposes of the multinational learner corpus of advanced spoken English LINDSEI (2010). The proficiency of the recorded subjects ranged from B2- to C2. 319 instances of communication strategies extracted from the transcripts were categorized on the basis of an adapted taxonomy, forming two main categories: compensatory strategies (55 instances), which compensate the lack of linguistic resources, and indirect strategies (264 instances), which enhance the effectiveness of communication and keep the channel of communication open. Compensatory strategies were further divided into analytic (36), holistic (3), linguistic (6) and cooperative strategies (10). Analytic strategies were the...

The following essay presents a case study based on participant observation of a group of Swedish secondary school students’ interaction in English. The study focused on what is commonly referred to as communicative competence, or more specifically strategic competence, which represents how language speakers overcome linguistic breakdowns or gaps in their communicative skill. The aim of the study was to better understand how students use linguistic fillers in different situations. By observing students in two different situations, one stressful and one regular conversational situation, it was found that when in a stressful situation, students are more likely to use linguistic fillers in general and also that some students rely on their first language, Swedish, when using linguistic fillers. In this case study, it was found that some students experience difficulties in using English linguistic fillers. Based on these findings, there is a need for teachers to address this problem if students are to develop confidence and skill in using them. For this reason, there is a need for further research on developing and testing different teaching methods on the use of linguistic fillers.   Keywords: communicative competence, EFL, language didactics, linguistic fillers, participant observation, secondary school students, strategic competence.

Dans cette recherche-action nous avons mis en place un dispositif pédagogique visant à faire développer la compétence stratégique orale d’un groupe d’étudiants plurilingues apprenant l’espagnol au Campus Européen Franco-Allemand de Sciences Po Paris, situé à Nancy (France). Nous avons enseigné des stratégies de communication orale spécifiques dans le but d’étudier les effets de cet enseignement à partir, d’un côté, de l’utilisation des stratégies par les étudiants, avant et après notre intervention et, d’un autre côté, de leurs opinions sur le dispositif pédagogique. Plusieurs instruments de recherche ont été utilisés dans le but de recueillir un nombre important de données qui ont permis de répondre aux quatre questions de recherche : (1) Quelles sont les stratégies de communication orale utilisées par les étudiants en début et en fin de recherche ? (2) L’enseignement de stratégies de communication orale spécifiques fait-il augmenter l’utilisation de ces stratégies ? (3) Quel apport fait l’entretien rétrospectif à la recherche sur l’enseignement des stratégies de communication orale ? (4) Quel bilan font les étudiants de l’enseignement/apprentissage des stratégies de communication orale spécifiques en cours ? Les analyses ont été faites sur quatre tâches langagières monologales avant et après notre intervention pédagogique. Les résultats montrent que les étudiants ont utilisé davantage les stratégies enseignées et diminué l’utilisation des stratégies qui n’ont pas été enseignées. On observe également que le niveau de langue s’est amélioré. En ce qui concerne l’apport de l’entretien rétrospectif, cette technique nous a donné accès à des données « invisibles » qui nous ont aidé à comprendre une partie des processus mentaux qui ont amené les étudiants à produire différentes stratégies de communication orale. Enfin, les apprenants ont dit qu’ils ont apprécié et tiré profit de cette expérience pédagogique. / In this action research we have designed a pedagogical program aimed at developing the strategic competence of a group of multilingual students learning Spanish at the European Franco-German Campus of Sciences Po Paris in Nancy (France). We taught specific oral communication strategies in order to study the effects of this learning experience based, on the one hand, on students’ use of strategies before and after our intervention and, on the other hand, on their opinions and attitudes towards the learning of strategies in the classroom. We used several research instruments to collect a significant amount of data that allowed us to answer our four research questions: (1) What are the oral communication strategies used by the students at the beginning and end of the research? (2) Does the teaching of specific oral communication strategies raise the use of these strategies? (3) What impact do retrospective interviews have on our research? (4) What are the students’ attitudes towards the teaching of specific oral communication strategies? The data analyzed was collected from four monological language tasks before and after our intervention. Results show that the use of taught strategies increased whereas the use of non-taught strategies decreased. It was also observed that students’ language proficiency improved. Regarding the contribution of the retrospective interviews to our research, this technique helped us to access “invisible” data that allowed us to understand some of the mental processes that led learners to produce a range of communication strategies. Finally, students stated that they enjoyed and learned from this learning experience. / En esta investigación-acción, hemos creado un dispositivo pedagógico destinado a desarrollar la competencia estratégica oral de un grupo de estudiantes multilingües que aprenden español en el Campus Europeo Franco-Alemán de Sciences Po Paris, ubicado en Nancy (Francia). Hemos enseñado estrategias de comunicación oral específicas para estudiar los efectos de esta enseñanza a partir, de un lado, del uso de estrategias por parte de los estudiantes, antes y después de nuestra intervención y, de otro lado, de sus opiniones sobre el dispositivo pedagógico. Se utilizaron varios instrumentos de investigación para recoger una gran cantidad de datos a fin de responder a las cuatro preguntas de investigación: (1) ¿Cuáles son las estrategias de comunicación oral utilizadas por los estudiantes al principio y al final de la investigación? (2) ¿La enseñanza de estrategias específicas de comunicación oral hace aumentar el uso de estas estrategias? (3) ¿Qué aporta la entrevista retrospectiva a la investigación sobre la enseñanza de estrategias de comunicación oral? (4) ¿Qué balance hacen los estudiantes de la enseñanza/aprendizaje en clase de estrategias de comunicación oral específicas? Los análisis se realizaron en cuatro tareas orales (monólogos) antes y después de nuestra intervención pedagógica. Los resultados muestran que los estudiantes usaron más las estrategias enseñadas y disminuyeron el uso de estrategias que no fueron enseñadas. También observamos que el nivel de lengua mejoró. Con respecto al aporte de la entrevista retrospectiva, esta técnica nos dio acceso a datos “invisibles” que nos ayudaron a comprender algunos de los procesos mentales que llevaron a los estudiantes a producir diferentes estrategias de comunicación oral. Finalmente, los estudiantes dijeron haber disfrutado y sacado provecho de esta experiencia pedagógica.

L’objet de notre recherche est double : comprendre le phénomène de fabrique d’une compétence organisationnelle stratégique induite par les usages des TI, d’une part, et aller au-delà des modèles existants d’analyse des impacts des TI en intégrant une approche multidimensionnelle, d’autre part. Nous avons privilégié une approche empirique qui a débuté par une étude de cas pilote qui nous a permis de délimiter un cadre théorique de manière abductive, par un aller-retour constant entre le terrain et les construits théoriques existants. Le cadre conceptuel se veut une synthèse des différents courants RBV intégrant le concept d’apprentissage organisationnel. Les résultats d’une étude multicas soulignent le caractère diffus et partiellement intentionnel d’un processus requérant l’interaction de ressources complémentaires fortement dépendantes du passé et aboutissant à l’amélioration de l‘efficience des routines et de la capacité dynamique d’apprentissage. Nous proposons une modélisation du processus et nous discutons des concepts significatifs quant à l'étude d'un tel phénomène. / Our research object is twofold: understand a strategic organizational competences bulding using IT, on the one hand, and go beyond the existing analysis of impacts of the IT models, integrating a multidimensional approach, on the other hand. We privileged an empirical approach beginning with a pilot case study that allowed us to define a theoretical framework of an abductive way, by a constant back and forth between the field and the theoretical existing constructs. The conceptual framework is a synthesis of the various RBV strands integrating the concept of organizational learning. The results of a multicase study underline the diffused and partially intentional character of a process, requiring interaction of additional resources highly dependent from the past, and leading to improve efficiency of the routines and dynamic adaptability. We propose a design of the process and discuss significant concepts for the study of this phenomenon.

Syftet med denna studie var att ta fram en process för hur modern teknik kan användas för att organisationer ska lyckas med strategisk kompetensförsörjning. Begreppet datadrivna beslut används när så kallade klassificeringsalgoritmer kan hjälpa oss att upptäcka en ’önskad kompetens som saknas’ eller ’föreslå ett område som vi behöver utveckla’. Metoden utgår från tjänstedesign och denna studie använde sig av en empati karta, som skapades från en enkät studie på det sociala yrkesnätverket LinkedIn med virtuell snöbollsmetod (jmf. respondentdriven sampling). Den utgår från kvalitativa data som beskriver insikter utifrån användarnas upplevelser och drivkrafter. Sedan var det viktig att definiera vilka aktörer som berörs av utmaningen för att kunna beskriva stegen i en användarresa och ta fram en designskiss. Design processen inkluderade även intervjuer med huvudaktörerna för att kunna undersöka rotorsaker och sålla idéer med hjälp av klusteranalys. Slutligen testades en digital prototyp och för att utvärdera vad som fungerade och titta på förbättringar skapades feedback matris. Underlaget för att undersöka problemet kommer från behovet inom användargruppen och perspektiv från aktörer, som sedan validerats genom att använda flera olika verktyg hämtade från tjänstedesign. Slutsatsen var att datadrivet beslutsfattande går ut på att använda mätbara indikatorer och data för att fatta beslut som är i linje med strategiska mål inom kompetensförsörjning. Detta redovisas som en användarresa som består av stegen ”Initiera & kartlägga”, ”Genomföra & uppföljning” och ”Utvärdera & reflektera”. / The purpose of this study was to develop a process for how modern technology can be used for organizations to succeed in strategic competence provision. The concept of data-driven decisions is used when so-called classification algorithms can help us discover a 'desired competence that is missing' or 'suggest an area that we need to develop'.  The method is based on service design and this study used an empathy map, which was created from a survey on the professional social network LinkedIn using the virtual snowball method (cf. respondent-driven sampling). It is based on qualitative data that describes insights based on the users' experiences and driving forces. Then it was important to define which stakeholders that are affected by the challenge in order to be able to describe the steps in a journey map and produce a design sketch. The design process also included interviews with the main stakeholders in order to investigate root causes and sorting ideas using cluster analysis. Finally, a digital prototype was tested and to evaluate what worked and look for improvements, a feedback matrix was created. The basis for investigating the problem comes from the need within the user group and perspectives from stakeholders, which are then validated by using several different tools taken from service design. The conclusion was that data-driven decision-making involves define measurable indicators and data to make decisions that are in line with strategic goals in competence provision. This is reported as a user journey consisting of the steps "Initiate & map out", "Implement & follow up" and "Evaluate & reflect".

Pour comprendre le développement de la conscience métacognitive d'enfants plurilingues, il est nécessaire d'examiner quels sont les facteurs qui seraient susceptibles de la développer ou de la freiner. La conscience rnétacognitive est considérée comme un élément essentiel de développement des capacités d'apprentissage. Définie en tant que capacité à planifier et à contrôler les processus réflexifs, une conscience métacognitive accrue est susceptible d'aider l'enfant plurilingue à prendre le contrôle de l'organisation de son propre apprentissage. L'examen de l'influence des facteurs susceptibles de l'améliorer a été conduit à partir d'une approche par les biographies langagières. Les résultats suggèrent que l'apprentissage d'une langue étrangère à un âge où l'enfant peut prendre conscience de son apprentissage, est l'un de ces facteurs d'amélioration. Les avantages de l'expérience d'apprentissage d'une langue étrangère sont aussi bien d'ordres sociaux que métacognitifs. / Nowadays children more often come into contact with multiple languages at different ages and in variable contexts. Consequently, they may at times be required to communicate in situations in which they lack sufficient understanding of the language used. Knowing about communication, that is, being aware of the interaction, of the potential obstacles and of different strategies to overcome them, is essential to bring exolingual situations to a successful end. Are there features of language acquisition that affect the development of this facet of metacognitive awareness? ln this thesis a specific aspect of early plurilingualism is examined. Reactions of children who learned a new language at an age and in a context in which they were able to be conscious about their learning are compared to those of children who learned a new language from birth onwards. Results demonstrate that a conscious language learning experience is a relevant factor in the development of metacognitive awareness

For a long time, the research of communication strategies has played an important role in the study of second language acquisition. They are a criterion for the evaluation of the oral presentation and interaction in the Swedish curriculum of modern languages. Unfortunately, there are only few examples of communication strategies in the curriculum and teachers may ask themselves how different types of communication strategies can be distinguished and categorized. This study showcases how communication strategies used by 9th graders in group discussions can be identified and categorized based on a taxonomy of strategies and how this may contribute to evaluating the use of communication strategies. The research method used in this study is based on qualitative deductive content analysis. Results show, that communication strategies can be assigned uniquely to two major types of strategies, namely avoidance and resource expansion strategies. However, the assignment of communication strategies to different sub-categories proved to be more problematic. Furthermore, it could be determined that knowledge about the two major types of strategies contributes to the evaluation of communication strategies in oral presentation and interaction.