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我們身處於一個充滿風險的社會。金融海嘯、核能危機、全球暖化、食品問題等，在說明社會步向現代化的後遺症，正如何為人類帶來更難預測的風險，並無孔不入般影響我們的日常生活(Beck, 1992)。在這理論基礎上，本文將探究新聞製作於建構風險的角色，並提出一個名為「客觀化」(objectification) 的過程---新聞媒體如何在科學專家的意見眾說紛紜、對風險難有最終定案之下，把有關社會風險的新聞論述詮釋為客觀的社會事實。我尤其探討風險範例的建構---一些有關風險的新聞事件其後演變為重要範例，並影響日後類似事件的新聞論述。 / 為求以實證方法探究風險「合理化」的過程，我將以香港(中華人民共和國的特別行政區) 的新聞論述如何回應2009年全球豬流感危機作為案例。豬流感是香港經歷2003年非典型肺炎危機(又稱「沙士」) 的重創後，首次面對的全球疫症危機。香港新聞如何呈現豬流感疫情，亦深受「沙士」時的歷史回憶、經驗及後遺所影響。故此，這案例有助我研究風險範例於風險「合理化」時的作用。我從香港報章隨機抽樣出有關豬流感的新聞論述的樣本，並透過內容分析和文本分析，研究香港新聞如何敍述豬流感危機，以及相關敍述所包含的意識形態。我亦走訪了當年採訪豬流感新聞的新聞工作者、有份向傳媒提供專家意見的醫學專家、以及負責制定香港政府防控豬流感政策的官員，以了解建構豬流感風險背後的社會互動。 / 本文的研究顯示，香港有關豬流感危機的新聞論述，是如何奠基於「沙士」這風險範例而建構。豬流感起來襲初時，新聞論述廣泛地藉「沙士」的經驗去詮釋豬流感可能帶給香港的後果。新聞工作者於「沙士」時的採訪經歷，亦成為他們報道豬流感新聞時尋找醫學專家意見的參照經驗，尤其是當醫學專家意見紛紜、新聞工作者要判斷誰人的意見較有權威去界定健康風險之時。本文主要闡述新聞的建構於社會回應風險時所起的關鍵作用，從而帶出這於風險社會理論、以及當我們探究新聞媒體及傳播於現代風險社會的角色時，仍未受足夠重視的重要層面。 / We are witnessing the formation of a risk society, with financial instability, nuclear catastrophes, global warming, and food crises, and just to give a few examples, becoming parts of our everyday life in an age of risk characterized by uncertainties stemming from system failure of modernization (Beck, 1992). In the light of this theoretical concern, in this study I shall scrutinize how news making plays its role in the construction of risk. This, I suggest, is a process of risk objectification ---how news media justifies its discourse of social risk by making social facts upon uncertainties and inconclusive scientific opinions. Specifically, I shall focus on the creation of risk exemplar. That is, some news events become critical exemplar that would shape the news construction of subsequent crises of similar sources. / To look into the process of risk objectification empirically, I shall examine what were the main features of the news discourse in Hong Kong, a Special Administrative Region of China, in reaction to the global health crisis of Swine Flu in 2009. Swine Flu was the first pandemic crisis encountered by Hong Kong after its devastating suffering from the epidemic of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) in 2003. The news representation of Swine Flu was influenced by the historical memory, experience and legacies of SARS and this helps illustrate how risk exemplar contributes to risk legitimization. I carried out content and textual analysis respectively on a random sample of Hong Kong’s newspapers for the purpose of analyzing the key narrations of Swine Flu and the underlying ideological packages of such narrations. I also conducted in-depth interviews with journalists, medical experts and public officials who were deeply involved in the news making of Swine Flu so as to uncover the social dynamics in the process of risk construction. / Key findings of this thesis highlight how the health crisis of Swine Flu was staged by the risk exemplar of SARS. Experience of SARS was widely drawn upon for making sense of the potential impacts of Swine Flu when it first broke out. It was also the key reference for journalists when seeking expert advices, particularly when identifying those who are more authoritative among different opinions in defining the nature of the risk. It is my argument that news making plays a critical role in the shaping of the social reactions to a risk. My analysis thus adds an important, but somehow unduly neglected, dimension to theory of risk society and our understanding of the role of news media and communication in contemporary risk society. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Chan, Chi Kit. / Thesis (Ph.D.) Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2014. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 240-250). / Abstracts also in Chinese. / Chan, Chi Kit.

L’épidémie du VIH-1 dure maintenant depuis plus de 25 ans. La grande diversité génétique de ce virus est un obstacle majeur en vue de l’éradication de cette pandémie. Au cours des années, le VIH-1 a évolué en plus de cinquante sous-types ou formes recombinantes. Cette diversité génétique est influencée par diverses pressions de sélection, incluant les pressions du système immunitaire de l’hôte et les agents antirétroviraux (ARV). En effet, bien que les ARV aient considérablement réduit les taux de morbidité et de mortalité, en plus d’améliorer la qualité et l’espérance de vie des personnes atteintes du VIH-1, ces traitements sont complexes, dispendieux et amènent leur lot de toxicité pouvant mener à des concentrations plasmatiques sous-optimales pour contrôler la réplication virale. Ceci va permettre l’émergence de variantes virales portant des mutations de résistance aux ARV. Ce phénomène est encore plus complexe lorsque l’on prend en considération l’immense diversité génétique des différents sous-types. De plus, le virus du VIH est capable de persister sous forme latente dans diverses populations cellulaires, rendant ainsi son éradication extrêmement difficile. Des stratégies pouvant restreindre la diversité virale ont donc été préconisées dans le but de favoriser les réponses immunes de l’hôte pour le contrôle de l’infection et d’identifier des variantes virales offrant une meilleure cible pour des stratégies vaccinales ou immunothérapeutiques. Dans cet esprit, nous avons donc étudié, chez des sujets infectés récemment par le VIH-1, l’effet du traitement ARV précoce sur la diversité virale de la région C2V5 du gène enveloppe ainsi que sur la taille des réservoirs. En deuxième lieu, nous avons caractérisé la pression de sélection des ARV sur des souches virales de sous types variés non-B, chez des patients du Mali et du Burkina Faso afin d’évaluer les voies d’échappement viral dans un fond génétique différent du sous-type B largement prévalent en Amérique du Nord. Notre étude a démontré la présence d’une population virale très homogène et peu diversifiée dans les premières semaines suivant l’infection, qui évolue pour atteindre une diversification de +0,23% à la fin de la première année. Cette diversification est plus importante chez les sujets n’ayant pas initié de traitement. De plus, ceci s’accompagne d’un plus grand nombre de particules virales infectieuses dans les réservoirs viraux des cellules mononucléées du sang périphérique (PBMC) chez ces sujets. Ces résultats suggèrent que l’initiation précoce du traitement pourrait avoir un effet bénéfique en retardant l’évolution virale ainsi que la taille des réservoirs, ce qui pourrait supporter une réponse immune mieux ciblée et potentiellement des stratégies immunothérapeutiques permettant d’éradiquer le virus. Nous avons également suivi 801 sujets infectés par des sous-types non-B sur le point de débuter un traitement antirétroviral. Bien que la majorité des sujets ait été à un stade avancé de la maladie, plus de 75% des individus ont obtenu une charge virale indétectable après 6 mois d’ARV, témoignant de l’efficacité comparable des ARV sur les sous-types non-B et B. Toutefois, contrairement aux virus de sous-type B, nous avons observé différentes voies moléculaires de résistance chez les sous type non-B, particulièrement chez les sous-types AGK/AK/K pour lesquels les voies de résistances étaient associées de façon prédominante aux TAM2. De plus, bien que la divergence entre les virus retrouvés chez les patients d’une même région soit faible, nos analyses phylogénétiques ont permis de conclure que ces mutations de résistance se sont produites de novo et non à partir d’un ancêtre commun porteur de résistance. Cependant, notre dernière étude au Mali nous a permis d’évaluer la résistance primaire à près de 10% et des études phylogénétiques seront effectuées afin d’évaluer la circulation de ces souches résistantes dans la population. Ces études suggèrent qu’un contrôle de la réplication virale par les ARV peut freiner la diversité du VIH et ainsi ouvrir la voie à un contrôle immunologique ciblé, utilisant de nouvelles stratégies vaccinales ou immunothérapeutiques. Toutefois, une thérapie antirétrovirale sous-optimale (adhérence, toxicité) peut conduire à l’échappement virologique en favorisant l’émergence et la dissémination de souches résistantes. / The HIV epidemic has been ongoing for 25 years. The striking genetic diversity of this virus is a formidable obstacle to the eradication of the pandemic. Throughout the years, HIV-1 has evolved in more than fifty subtypes and circulating recombinants forms. This evolution is shaped by selective pressures including the host immune responses and sub-optimal HAART treatment. In the era of HAART, HIV associated morbidity and mortality has decreased dramatically and significantly improved the life expectancy of infected individuals. However, treatments are complex, expensive and are associated with toxicity. When viral replication is not fully contained, drug mutations arise which further complicate treatment options. This phenomenon is even more complex when taking into account the great genetic diversity of various HIV-1 subtypes. HIV also has the capacity to persist in different cellular population and thus eradication is extremely difficult to achieve. Strategies aiming at limiting viral diversity and improving the host immune responses to control HIV replication are needed. The identification of conserved viral variants could ultimately be useful in vaccine design or as an immunotherapeutic target. Thus, we have studied the effects early HAART during primary HIV infection has on viral diversity in the C2V5 region of the env gene and on the size of viral reservoir. We then characterized the selective pressure of ARV on non-B subtype and evaluated drug resistance pathways in non-B HIV genetic background in infected subjects from Mali and Burkina Faso as they initiated treatment. Our study demonstrated a homogenous viral population during the first weeks post infection. Viral diversity did increase during the first year to reach +0.23% at the end of the first year post infection. Patients not initiating treatment exhibited a higher magnitude of viral diversity, and the size of their viral reservoir as determined by the number of infectious units per million PBMC’s also reached higher values. Our results suggest that early treatment, by slowing viral evolution and size of viral reservoir, could permit strong immune system responses against contemporaneous viruses and could help achieved eradication. In another study, we followed 801 patients infected with non-B subtype who were about to start antiretroviral therapy. The majority of these patients were at advanced stages of the infection. Nevertheless, more than 75% achieved undetectable viral load after 6 months of therapy. This very encouraging result led us to conclude that antiretroviral therapy was efficient in controlling replication in non-B subtype infection at similar level than in subtype B infection. In contrast to subtype B infection, we observed different molecular resistance pathways in non-B subtypes, particularly in the AGK/AK/K subtype for which mutations were predominantly associated with the TAM2 pathway. Although our phylogenetic analysis showed a very closely related viral population in our population, we were able to determine that those mutations were not from a common ancestral virus transmitted in this population but rather were emerging de novo in those patients. We conducted another study in Mali and our results showed a primary drug resistance frequency of 10%. We are now conducting phlylogenetic studies to evaluate the prevalence of drug resistance virus transmission in this population. Our studies suggest that controlling viral replication by treatment could delay viral evolution. A slower viral diversity could have a beneficial effect on the immune system and could lead to the development of new vaccines or immunotherapeutics strategies. However, sub-optimal drugs concentrations (poor adherence, toxicitiy) could lead to viral escape and emergence of virus bearing drug resistance mutations which could further be disseminated in the population.

\\OBJETIVOS: Avaliar a imunogenicidade e a segurança a curto prazo da vacina H1N1 pandêmica em pacientes com artrite reumatóide (AR) e espondiloartrites [ESa - artrite psoriática (AP) e espondilite anquilosante (EA)] recebendo classes distintas de terapia anti-TNF, assim como comparação com pacientes que receberam drogas modificadoras de doenças reumáticas (DMARDs) e controles saudáveis. MÉTODOS: Cento e vinte pacientes (AR, n=41; EA, n=57 e artrite psoriática - AP, n=22) em uso de agentes anti-TNF (monoclonal, n=94 e receptor solúvel, n=26) foram comparados com 116 pacientes com artrite inflamatórias em uso de DMARDs e 117 controles saudáveis. Soroproteção (SP), soroconversão (SC), médias geométricas dos títulos (MGTs), fator de aumento (FI) das MGT e eventos adversos foram avaliados 21 dias após a vacinação. RESULTADOS: Após a imunização, as taxas de SC (58,2% vs 74,3%, p=0,017) foram significativamente menores nos pacientes com espondiloartrites que receberam a terapia anti-TNF, enquanto nenhuma diferença foi observada em pacientes com AR que recebem esta terapia, em comparação com controles saudáveis (p=0,067). Pacientes com espondiloartrites que receberam anticorpos monoclonais (infliximabe/adalimumabe) tiveram uma taxa de SC significativamente menor em comparação com controles saudáveis (51,6% vs. 74,3%, p=0,002) ou para aqueles em uso de DMARDs (51,6% vs. 74,7%, p=0,005), por sua vez não houve diferença para pacientes em uso de etanercepte (86,7% vs. 74,3%, p=0,091). Uma análise dos pacientes com espondiloartrites que apresentaram SC e os que não apresentaram SC revelou que o primeiro grupo teve maior média de idade (p=0,003), maior frequência de anti-TNF (p=0,031) e anticorpos monoclonais (p=0,001), e uma menor frequência de metotrexate (p=0,028). Na regressão logística multivariada, apenas a idade avançada (p=0,015) e tratamento anticorpos monoclonais (p=0,023) permaneceram fatores importantes para a não SC em pacientes com espondiloartrites. CONCLUSÕES: Este estudo mostrou um padrão distinto da resposta imune à vacina contra a gripe pandêmica em pacientes com artrite inflamatória que receberam agentes anti-TNF, com uma imunogenicidade reduzida apenas em pacientes com espondiloartrites usando anticorpos monoclonais / OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the immunogenicity of the anti-influenza A H1N1/2009 vaccine in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and spondyloarthritis patients receiving distinct classes of anti-TNF agents compared with patients receiving DMARDs and healthy controls. METHODS: One hundred and twenty patients (RA, n=41; ankylosing spondylitis - AS, n=57 and psoriatic arthritis - PsA, n=22) under anti-TNF agents (monoclonal, n=94 and soluble receptor, n=26) were compared to 116 inflammatory arthritis patients under DMARDs and 117 healthy controls. Seroprotection (SP), seroconversion (SC), geometric mean titre (GMT), factor increase (FI) in GMT and adverse events were evaluated 21 days after vaccination. RESULTS: After immunisation, SC rates (58.2% vs. 74.3%, p=0.017) were significantly lower in spondyloarthritis patients receiving anti-TNF therapy, whereas no difference was observed in RA patients receiving this therapy compared to healthy controls (p=0.067). Spondyloarthritis patients receiving monoclonal antibodies (infliximab/adalimumab) had a significantly lower seroconversion rate compared to healthy controls (51.6% vs. 74.3%, p=0.002) or to those under DMARDs (51.6% vs. 74.7%, p=0.005), whereas no difference was observed for patients under etanercept (86.7% vs. 74.3%, p=0.091). Further analysis of non-seroconverting and seronconverting spondyloarthritis patients revealed that the former group had a higher mean age (p=0.003), a higher frequency of anti-TNF (p=0.031) and monoclonal antibodies (p=0.001), and a lower frequency of methotrexate (p=0.028). In multivariate logistic regression, only older age (p=0.015) and monoclonal antibodies treatment (p=0.023) remained significant factors for nonseroconversion in spondyloarthritis patients. CONCLUSIONS: This study revealed a distinct disease pattern of immune response to the pandemic influenza vaccine in inflammatory arthritis patients receiving anti-TNF agents, illustrated by a reduced immunogenicity solely in spondyloarthritis patients using monoclonal antibodies

Carcinomas de mama são heterogêneos e consistem de diversos tipos celulares. Perfis de expressão gênica usando DNA microarrays identificaram quatro subtipos moleculares fundamentais baseados na expressão de receptores hormonais (estrógeno e progesterona) e de fator de crescimento epidérmico (HER2) (luminal tipo A, luminal tipo B, tumores expressando somente HER2 e triplos negativos) refletindo a heterogeneidade molecular dos carcinomas. Sugeriu-se que esta heterogeneidade advém da presença de células tronco tumorais com a capacidade de se diferenciar ao longo de vias divergentes e outros estudos sugeriram que a presença destas células tronco tumorais pode ser evidenciada pela análise fenotípica de CD44 e CD24. Nosso objetivo foi detectar a freqüência de CD24 e CD44 isolados ou combinados, analisados por imunoistoquímica e sua associação com os subtipos moleculares e com diversos marcadores biológicos em 95 casos de carcinoma ductal infiltrativo organizados em um microarranjo tissular (TMA). Realizamos determinações imunoistoquímicas de CD44, CD24, citoqueratinas (CK5, CK6, CK18), claudina 7 e Ki67. Subgrupos moleculares foram definidos pela expressão imunoistoquímica de RE, RP e HER2. Resultados: Os tumores apresentaram uma maior freqüência dos grupos luminais (49,5%) atribuído à alta expressão de RP ou RE (47,4%), e freqüência menor de tumores triplo negativos (21,5%) e HER2 (9,5%). Os fenótipos CD44+CD24- e CD44-/CD24+ estavam respectivamente presentes em 8,4% e 16,8% dos tumores e o fenótipo duplamente positivo foi predominante (45,3%). Ausência de ambas as proteínas foi evidente em 6,3% dos tumores. Tumores com fenótipo CD44+CD24- (definido como um marcador de células tronco tumorais por estudos in vitro) foram mais comuns em tumores triplos negativos mas não demonstraram nenhum tipo de associação com características clinico-patológicas e demais marcadores. Este fenótipo não foi expresso nos tumores HER2 positivos. O fenótipo duplamente positivo CD44+CD24+ mostrou-se mais freqüente nos subtipos luminais ou com alta expressão de HER2. Os fenótipos (CD44-CD24+ e CD44-CD24-) não mostraram associação com os subgrupos. Tumores expressando CD24+ isolado, com grande freqüência deste marcador (74,7%), mostraram significativa associação com positividade do RE, RP e Ki67 e uma significância marginal com marcadores de diferenciação luminal (CK18 e claudina 7, p = 0,14). Nenhuma associação foi observada com tumores CD44+ quando analisado isoladamente. A expressão de claudina 7 e Ki67 não mostrou associação com os subgrupos e a expressão de CK5 apresentou uma tendência a uma maior negatividade nos subtipos luminais e uma freqüência maior de positividade nos tumores HER2 e triplo negativos. De outro lado, associação da freqüência da expressão positiva de CK18 nos subgrupos luminais foi estatisticamente significativa (p = 0,003). Para se determinar se CD24+ e CD44+ e seus subtipos combinados poderiam afetar a sobrevida global e o intervalo livre da doença preparamos curvas de sobrevida de acordo com Kaplan-Meier que foram analisadas estatisticamente (log rank test). A mediana do período de seguimento das pacientes do nosso estudo foi de 4,8 anos (0,36 10,9 anos). Estas análises não demostraram influência dos fenótipos CD44+CD24- ou CD44+ sobre a sobrevida global ou intervalo livre de doença, mas observamos uma tendência a um prognóstico mais favorável. Interessantemente tumores HER2 positivos não expressaram este fenótipo, sugerindo que outros marcadores de células tronco caracterizam estes tumores. O fenótipo CD44-CD24+ mostrou-se mais freqüente nos tumores luminais, mas não apresentou correlação com marcadores clínico-patológicos ou biológicos analisados. Não houve diferenças significativas com respeito a sobrevida global ou intervalo livre de doença . A expressão de CD24+ isolado associou-se a expressão dos marcadores de diferenciação celular e a uma diminuição do intervalo livre de doença. A sobrevida livre de doença (10 anos) indicou uma percentagem de 94,1% para CD24- e 72,1% para os pacientes CD24+ enquanto a sobrevida global foi de 84,2% para os pacientes CD24- e 72,1% para os pacientes CD24+. Citoqueratinas (CK5, CK18) e Ki67 não influenciaram a sobrevida e o intervalo livre de doença. No entanto a expressão positiva de claudina 7, embora não associada à sobrevida global, foi estatisticamente associada ao decréscimo do intervalo livre da doença (p = 0,05). Conclusão: As características dos tumores CD44+CD24- e sua tendência a associação um prognóstico mais favorável parecem não estar de acordo com as propriedades descritas na literatura para células tronco e enfatizam a necessidade de outros marcadores. A determinação da freqüência de CD44+ e claudina 7 positiva pode contribuir para a análise do prognóstico em carcinoma de mama / Background: Breast carcinomas consist phenotypically of diverse cells and exhibit intra tumoral heterogeneity being stratified in several subgroups based in gene expression profiles or histochemical biomarkers. It was suggested that this heterogeneity is derived in part from the transformation of different subsets of cancer stem cells (CSC) in each intrinsic subgroup. The presence of CSC can be evidenced by phenotypic analysis of CD44 e CD24. This study aimed to identify the CD24 and CD44 immunophenotype within invasive ductal breast carcinoma (IDC) subtypes and determine its influence on prognosis as well as its association with the expression of Ki67, citokeratins (CK5, CK6 and CK18) and claudin-7. Methods: Immuno expression of CD44 and CD24 alone or in combination was investigated in 95 IDC cases arranged in a tissue microarray (TMA). The association with intrinsic subgroups defined as luminal A (ER+, PR+, HER2-), luminal B (ER and or PR+, HER2+), HER2 subtype (ER-, PR-, HER2+) and triple negative (ER-, PR-, HER2-), and the other markers and prognosis was analyzed. Results: CD44+CD24- and CD44-CD24+ were respectively presents in 8.4% and 16.8% of the tumors, a lack of both proteins was detected in 6.3%, while CD44+CD24+ was determined in 45.3% of the tumors. Although there was no significant correlation between subgroups and different phenotypes, the CD44+CD24- phenotype was more common in the basal subgroups but the frequency of this subtype has not been associated with clinical characteristic or biological markers. The phenotype was absent in HER2 tumors whereas luminal tumors are enriched in CD44-CD24+ and CD44+CD24+ cells which did not show associations with clinical/biological markers features. There was also no significant association of the subtypes with the event free (DFS) and overall survival (OS) but the CD44+CD24- phenotype showed a more favorable prognostic as compared to CD44-CD44+ phenotype that showed a worse prognosis (p = 0.26) (median follow up, 4.8 years) CD44+ alone was evident in 57.9%, while CD24+ was positive in 74.7% of the tumors, the latter showing a significant association with ER, PR and Ki67 and a marginal association with CK18 and claudin-7. Expression of claudin-7 and Ki67 did not associate with the cancer subgroups, while a positive association between CK18 and the luminal subgroups was found. CD44+ was not significantly associated with OS (p = 0.684) and DFS (p = 0.386) whereas CD24+ expression was also no significantly associated with OS (p = 0.32) but was associated with a decrease in DFS (p = 0.07). CK5, CK18 and Ki67 expression had no influence in OS or DFS, however claudin-7 positive although not statistically associated with OS, was associated with reduced DFS (p = 0.05). Conclusions: The heterogeneity of cells with several CD44CD24 expression may indicate the presence of different stem cell populations. Ocurrence of CD44+CD24- phenotype is more common in triple negative tumors and lower in tumors of luminal type and absent in HER2 tumors. Although not associated significantly with patho-biological markers or OS and DFS, the CD44+CD24- phenotype has a tendency to be a favorable prognostic marker in breast cancer raising the possibilty that the putative tumorigenic ability may no be restricted to cells of this phenotype. The presence of CD44-CD24+ may indicat a worse prognosis. CD24+ was associated with ER, PR, Ki67and showed a marginal association with CK18 and claudin-7. CD24 and Claudin-7 positivity were the only biological markers associated with reduced DFS. These two investigated markers can be used to improve the assessement of prognosis in breast cancer

A atenção à saúde compreende múltiplas formas de prestação de serviços, sendo o hospital a instituição nuclear para os sistemas de saúde. Em maio de 2009 iniciou-se uma epidemia que evoluiu para escala mundial, com novo subtipo de vírus influenza identificado como Influenza A (H1N1)09pdm, caracterizado pela alta demanda de consultas e internações hospitalares, o que impactou na gestão e custos do serviço. O objetivo da pesquisa foi estudar o consumo de serviços hospitalares dos casos suspeitos e confirmados de Influenza A(H1N1)09pdm no Instituto Central do Hospital das Clínicas da FMUSP (ICHC-HCFMUSP), entre maio e dezembro de 2009. Tomando como informação inicial os registros do banco de notificações e do de saídas hospitalares do Núcleo de Informação em Saúde do HCFMUSP, foram selecionados 430 indivíduos que preencheram os critérios de inclusão da pesquisa e que levaram à 632 internações hospitalares. Em 26% (n=112) das pessoas e em 22,3% (n=141) das internações foi confirmada a suspeita para infecção por H1N1. Nas internações de casos suspeitos, a mediana de duração da internação foi de 5+17 (0-161) dias e 23,4% (n=148) foram admitidos nas UTIs, com mediana de internação 4,5+7,8 (0-46) dias. Nos casos confirmados, a mediana foi de 5+19,1 (0- 161) dias de internação e 26,9% (n=38) de internações em UTI com 5+8,3 (0-31) dias. O pico de notificações de casos suspeitos e confirmados foi no mês de agosto, com 31,6% (n=200 das 632) internações de casos suspeitos e 44% (n=62 das 141) internações de casos confirmados. A Influenza A(H1N1)09pdm impactou o consumo de serviços, mostrando-se presente em muitas enfermarias do ICHC, o que implicou grande consumo de procedimentos diagnósticos e terapêuticos / Healt care comprises multiple ways of services, where hospitals are the nuclear reference institution of health services. In may 2009, a new pandemic influenza vírus subtype was identified as Influenza A(H1N1)09pdm, wich was characterized by high demand for hospital visits and hospitalizations. This research aimed to study the hospital service expenditure on confirmed and non-confirmed hospitalizations associated with Influenza A(H1N1)09pdm at Instituto Central do Hospital das Clínicas FMUSP (ICHC - HCFMUSP), between May and December of 2009. It was analyzed the registers from the notification database and output hospital database from the Information Health Department. According to inclusion criteria, it was found 430 people with 632 hospitalizations with 26% (n=112) patients and 22,3% (n=141) hospitalization for confirmed cases. For non confirmed hospitalizations, the median length of stay was 5+17 (0-161) days with 23,4% (n=148) of ICU admissions with median length of stay 4,5+7,8 (0-46) days. For confirmed cases, the hospitalization length of stay was 5+19,1 (0-161) days with 26,9% (n=38) on ICU admissions with median length of stay 5+8,3 (0-31) days. The notification peak was on August with 31,6% (n=200 from 632) hospitalizations form non-confirmed cases and 44% (n=62 from 141) confirmed cases hospitalization. The Influenza A(H1N1)09pdm impacted on service expenditure, because of its distribution in several wards from ICHC wich implied high expenditure of diagnosis and therapeutic proceeds

Introdução: O vírus da influenza causa doença generalizada e pode ser fatal. A vacinação diminuiu a morbimortalidade. A Imunodeficiência Comum Variável (ICV) é uma imunodeficiência primária caracterizada por defeitos na maturação e diferenciação dos linfócitos B (LB) resultando em hipogamaglobulinemia, ausência de resposta aos antígenos específicos e infecções de repetição. A maior susceptibilidade a infecções reforça o benefício da vacinação em pacientes com imunodeficiências. O questionamento sobre a vacinação neste grupo de indivíduos se deve a eficácia, uma vez que na ICV as medidas sorológicas não se mostraram úteis como correlatos de proteção. Estudos recentes do nosso grupo observaram a melhora clínica em relação ao número de infecções de vias aéreas em pacientes com ICV após a vacinação contra influenza, porém sem produção de anticorpos específicos em níveis protetores. Objetivos: Diante das observações apontadas, este trabalho tem o objetivo de investigar o envolvimento das subpopulações de linfócitos T naive e de memória, CD4+ e CD8+, na proteção induzida pela vacina influenza em pacientes com ICV. Casuística e Métodos: Foram selecionados 16 pacientes ICV e 16 controles saudáveis. Amostras de sangue foram colhidas antes e após a administração das vacinas contra A H1N1/H3N2 e B (cepas: A/Califórnia/7/2009, A/Victoria/361/2011, B/Brisbane/60/2008). A resposta específica de células T de memória foi avaliada nas condições sem estímulo pré e pós-vacina nos períodos de 1 mês, 3 meses e 6 meses, além da realização de culturas de linfócitos com a hemaglutinina de influenza (HA) e lisado viral, nos mesmos tempos. As subpopulações de linfócitos T naive e de memória foram avaliados a partir da marcação CD3+, CD4+, CD8+, CD45RA+ e CCR7+ detectados por citometria de fluxo. Esta marcação nos permitiu identificar quatro subtipos de linfócitos: LT naive (CD45+RA+CCR7+); LT de memória efetora (TEM, CD45+RA-CCR7-); LT de memória central (TCM, CD45+RA-CCR7+) e LT de memória terminalmente diferenciado (TEMRA, CD45+RA+CCR7-). A avaliação funcional dos linfócitos T após estímulo foi realizada através da marcação intracelular de IFN-Gama e IL-2. Resultados: Este estudo demonstrou uma redução na frequência de linfócitos T CD4 +, linfócitos CD4 + TCM e CD8 + TCM em pacientes com ICV e controles saudáveis após a vacina contra influenza. Observamos uma frequência aumentada de linfócitos TEM CD4 + e CD8 + em controles saudáveis e aumento da frequência de linfócitos CD8 + TEMRA em pacientes com ICV, bem como em controles saudáveis. A vacina contra influenza foi capaz de induzir a proliferação de subpopulações de linfócitos T que pode ser caracterizada pela hipótese de diferenciação linear de células sugerida por alguns autores (naive - TCM - TEM / TEMRA). Os peptídeos de HA e o lisado viral foram capazes de estimular subpopulações de linfócitos T de memória específica em pacientes com ICV e controles saudáveis, dependendo do período e das condições dos estímulos. Os resultados mostraram que nos linfócitos T CD4+, a vacinação induziu uma resposta predominantemente IL-2+, enquanto no compartimento T CD8+ observamos uma resposta polifuncional com a produção de IL-2+ e IFN-Gama+. Conclusões: Este é o primeiro estudo a avaliar as subpopulações de linfócitos T de memória em pacientes com DCV vacinados contra Influenza A (H3N2) / B e Influenza A H1N1. Nossos resultados mostraram mudanças no padrão de distribuição das subpopulações de linfócitos T naive, TCM, TEM e TEMRA e na produção de IL-2+ e IFN-Gama+ após a vacinação contra influenza, dados que sugerem e possivelmente justificam a resposta clínica e celular protetora observada em pacientes com ICV / Introduction: Influenza viruses infect humans causing widespread, sometimes fatal, disease. Common Variable Immunodeficiency (CVID) is a primary immunodeficiency characterized by defects in B lymphocyte maturation and differentiation resulting in hypogammaglobulinemia, failure to produce specific antigens and recurrent infections. The increased susceptibility to infections reinforces the benefit of vaccination in patients with immunodeficiencies. The major discussion regarding vaccination of CVID patients is the efficacy once these patients do not produce antibodies which are used as correlates of protection. Recent studies from our group showed reduced respiratory infection rates in influenza vaccinated CVID patients demonstrating a clinical response however with no production of specific antibodies in protective levels. Objective: Considering the above observations, this study has the objective of investigating the involvement of naïve and memory T lymphocytes subpopulations, CD4+ and CD8+, in the protection of influenza vaccination CVID in patients. Patients and Methods: Sixteen CVID patients and 16 healthy controls were selected for this study. Blood samples collected before and after administration of the H1N1 / H3N2 and B vaccines (strains: A / California / 7/2009, A / Victoria / 361/2011 B / Brisbane / 60/2008). Specific memory T cell response was evaluated pre and post vaccination with influenza (1 month, 3 months and 6 months). Besides characterization of lymphocyte subpopulations in PBMCs, cell culture with an influenza hemagglutinin (HA) and viral lysate were also realized. T lymphocytes subpopulations characterized by CD3+, CD4+, CD8+, CD45RA+ and CCR7+ were identified by flow cytometry. These antibodies permitted to identify four lymphocyte subtypes: naïve T cells (CD45RA+CCR7+); effective memory T cells (TEM, CD45RA-CCR7-); Central memory (TCM, CD45RACCR7+) and terminally differentiated memory T (TEMRA, CD45RA+CCR7-). Functional evaluation of lymphocytes was performed through intracellular labelling of IFN-Gama and IL-2. Results: This study showed the reductions of naïve CD4+ T cells, CD4+TCM and CD8+TCM cells in CVID patients and healthy controls after influenza vaccine. We observed an increased frequency of CD4+TEM and CD8+TEM lymphocytes in healthy controls, and increased frequency of CD8+TEMRA lymphocytes in CVID patients and healthy controls. Influenza vaccine was able to induce the proliferation of T lymphocyte subpopulations that can characterize the linear cell differentiation suggested by the authors (Naïve - TCM - TEM / TEMRA). Regarding cytokine production, there was an increase in IL-2+ production by CD4+T and CD8+T cells and an increase of IFN-Gama+ by CD8+T cells in CVID and control patients, indicating a polyfunctional cytokine response. Conclusions: To our knowledge, this is the first study that evaluated memory T lymphocyte subpopulations of CVID patients vaccinated against Influenza A (H3N2) / B and Influenza A H1N1. We show changes in the pattern of T lymphocyte subpopulations: naïve, TCM, TEM and TEMRA and IL-2+ and IFN-Gama+ production after influenza vaccination that may suggest and possibly explain the protective cellular and clinical response observed in CVID patients

Le virus de l'immunodéficience humaine (VIH) est responsable du syndrome d'immunodéficience humaine acquise (SIDA). Le virus est très variable et est classé en divers sous-types dont le sous-type B qui est le plus étudié et le C qui est le plus répandu. L'enveloppe (Env) à la surface du virus lui permet d'infecter des cellules du système immunitaire, parmi lesquelles les lymphocytes T CD4 (LT CD4) et les macrophages sont des cibles privilégiées. Nous avons étudié le rôle de variations de séquences dans la partie de Env qui n'est pas exposée à la surface du virus (la queue intravirale (gp41CT)). Nos résultats montrent que ce domaine contribue à la réplication du virus dans les LT CD4 et que des variations dans ce domaine entravent l'assemblage des protéines de structure du virus, diminuant la production de nouveaux virus. Ce défaut n'est pas observé dans les macrophages, suggérant qu'un facteur cellulaire est impliqué. Identifier ce facteur pourrait fournir de nouvelles cibles antivirales / The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is responsible for the pandemic of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Being highly variable, the virus has been subdivided into viral subtypes. Subtype B is the most studied, while subtype C is the most spread. The envelope (Env) expressed at the surface of the virion enables infection of cells involved in the immune system, like CD4 cells (CD4 TL) and macrophages. We studied the Env region not exposed at the viral surface (intraviral tail, gp41CT), which also harbors sequence characteristics linked to viral subtype. Viruses with subtype C gp41CT had lower replication capacities in CD4 TL. Microscopy analysis showed a defect in clustering of the viral structural protein Gag, revealing that changes in gp41CT affect assembly of all viral components. This defect was seen in CD4 TL but not in macrophages, suggesting the involvement of a cellular factor. Identifying this factor could open new therapeutic leads

La donnée de séquences nucléotidiques permet d'inférer des arbres phylogénétiques, ou phylogénies, qui décrivent leur lien de parenté au cours de l'évolution. Associer à ces séquences leur date de prélèvement ou leur pays de collecte, permet d'inférer la localisation temporelle ou spatiale de leurs ancêtres communs. Ces données et procédures sont très utilisées pour les séquences de virus et, notamment, celles du virus de l'immunodéficience humaine (VIH), afin d'en retracer l'histoire épidémique à la surface du globe et au cours du temps. L'utilisation de séquences échantillonnées à des moments différents (ou hétérochrones) sert aussi à estimer leur taux de substitution, qui caractérise la vitesse à laquelle elles évoluent.Les méthodes les plus couramment utilisées pour ces différentes tâches sont précises, mais lourdes en temps de calcul car basées sur des modèles complexes, et ne peuvent traiter que quelques centaines de séquences. Devant le nombre croissant de séquences disponibles dans les bases de données, souvent plusieurs milliers pour une étude donnée, le développement de méthodes rapides et efficaces devient indispensable. Nous présentons une méthode de distances, Ultrametric Least Squares, basée sur le principe des moindres carrés, souvent utilisé en phylogénie, qui permet d'estimer le taux de substitution d'un ensemble de séquences hétérochrones, dont on déduit ensuite facilement les dates des spéciations ancestrales. Nous montrons que le critère à optimiser est parabolique par morceaux et proposons un algorithme efficace pour trouver l'optimum global.L'utilisation de séquences échantillonnées en des lieux différents permet aussi de retracer les chaînes de transmission d'une épidémie. Dans ce cadre, nous utilisons la totalité des séquences disponibles (~3 500) du sous-type C du VIH-1 (VIH de type 1), responsable de près de 50% des infections mondiales au VIH-1, pour estimer ses principaux flux migratoires à l'échelle mondiale, ainsi que son origine géographique. Des outils novateurs, basés sur le principe de parcimonie combiné avec différents critères statistiques, sont utilisés afin de synthétiser et interpréter l'information contenue dans une grande phylogénie représentant l'ensemble des séquences étudiées. Enfin, l'origine géographique et temporelle de ce variant (VIH-1 C) au Sénégal est précisément explorée lors d'une seconde étude, portant notamment sur les hommes ayant des rapports sexuels avec des hommes. / Nucleotide sequences data enable the inference of phylogenetic trees, or phylogenies, describing their evolutionary re-lationships during evolution. Combining these sequences with their sampling date or country of origin, allows inferring the temporal or spatial localization of their common ancestors. These data and methods are widely used with viral sequences, and particularly with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), to trace the viral epidemic history over time and throughout the globe. Using sequences sampled at different points in time (or heterochronous) is also a mean to estimate their substitution rate, which characterizes the speed of evolution. The most commonly used methods to achieve these tasks are accurate, but are computationally heavy since they are based on complex models, and can only handle few hundreds of sequences. With an increasing number of sequences avail-able in the databases, often several thousand for a given study, the development of fast and accurate methods becomes essential. Here, we present a new distance-based method, named Ultrametric Least Squares, which is based on the princi-ple of least squares (very popular in phylogenetics) to estimate the substitution rate of a set of heterochronous sequences and the dates of their most recent common ancestors. We demonstrate that the criterion to be optimized is piecewise parabolic, and provide an efficient algorithm to find the global minimum.Using sequences sampled at different locations also helps to trace transmission chains of an epidemic. In this respect, we used all available sequences (~3,500) of HIV-1 subtype C, responsible for nearly 50% of global HIV-1 infections, to estimate its major migratory flows on a worldwide scale and its geographic origin. Innovative tools, based on the principle of parsimony, combined with several statistical criteria were used to synthesize and interpret information in a large phylogeny representing all the studied sequences. Finally, the temporal and geographical origins of the HIV-1 subtype C in Senegal were further explored and more specifically for men who have sex with men.