La succinate déshydrogénase (SDH) est à la fois une enzyme clé du cycle de Krebs oxydant le succinate en fumarate et le complexe II de la chaîne respiratoire mitochondriale impliqué dans le transfert des électrons et la réduction de l’ubiquinone. Des inhibiteurs de cette enzyme (SDHI) ont été développés ou sont en cours de développement comme antifongiques. Cette famille de fongicides est notamment utilisée pour lutter contre Botrytis cinerea, champignon phytopathogène responsable de la pourriture grise sur de nombreuses cultures dont la vigne. Des souches résistantes aux SDHI ont été isolées chez B. cinerea et d’autres champignons phytopathogènes. Chez ces isolats résistants, des mutations ont été identifiées dans les gènes codant la SDH. Au cours de cette thèse, nous avons étudié l’impact de mutations affectant la sous-unité B (SdhB) de la succinate déshydrogénase sur l’activité de l’enzyme, la biologie du champignon B. cinerea et la résistance aux inhibiteurs ciblant cette enzyme. Par mutagénèse dirigée du gène sdhB, nous avons obtenu des mutants dits « isogéniques » qui ont permis de confirmer l’implication de ces mutations dans la résistance aux différentes molécules SDHI. Par ailleurs, nos résultats montrent que les modifications de la sous-unité SdhB affectent l’affinité des SDHI pour la SDH et les niveaux d’inhibition de l’activité SDH par les molécules inhibitrices ; ce qui explique - in fine - les spectres de résistance des mutants aux SDHI. Actuellement, tous les mutants sont résistants au boscalid et les mutants les plus fréquemment retrouvés au vignoble, sdhBH272R/Y, sont sensibles au fluopyram. Les travaux réalisés sur les mutants sdhB montrent que les mutations étudiées ont également un impact sur l’activité de l’enzyme et sur le développement du champignon, conséquences dépendantes du résidu substitué et de la substitution. En particulier, les mutations sdhBH272L/R affectent fortement l’activité de l’enzyme et la fitness du champignon alors que le mutant sdhBH272Y est peu affecté. Enfin, l’analyse de populations de pourriture grise de différentes origines (région, plantes hôtes) par rapport à la résistance aux SDHI réalisée sur les années 2009/2010 montre que les mutants sdhBH272R/Y sont toujours les plus fréquents mais leurs fréquences varient en fonction des situations agronomiques. Notamment la fréquence du mutant sdhBH272R augmente avec la pression de sélection exercée par les fongicides. Ce mutant attire particulièrement notre attention du fait de sa relation non linéaire entre fitness et fréquence au champ. / Succinate dehydrogenase is both a key enzyme of the TCA cycle, oxidizing succinate into fumarate and complex II of the mitochondrial respiratory chain involved in electron transfer and ubiquinone reduction. Inhibitors of this enzyme (SDHIs) have been developed or are in the developmental process as fungicides. Actually, SDHIs are registered to deal with Botrytis cinerea, a phytopathogenic fungus responsible for grey mold on many crops including grapevine. Strains of B. cinerea and other pathogenic fungi have been isolated for their resistance to SDHI. They mainly harbor mutations in genes encoding SDH subunits. During this thesis, we studied the impact of mutations modifying subunit B of succinate dehydrogenase on enzyme activity, fungal biology and resistance to SDHIs. “Isogenic” mutants obtained through site-directed mutagenesis and homologous recombination allowed us to confirm the role of sdhB mutations in SDHIs resistance. Our results also show that the substitutions in the SdhB subunit impact respectively the affinity of SDHIs to SDH and the inhibition levels of SDH activity by inhibitors, which explain – in fine – the resistance spectra observed for the mutants. Up to now, all sdhB mutants are resistant to boscalid and the most frequent mutants observed in grapevines, sdhBH272R/Y, are susceptible to fluopyram. Studies on sdhB mutants reveal that the mutations also impact the enzymatic activity and the fungal development depending on the substitution. In particular, sdhBH272L/R mutations have the strongest impact on enzyme activity and the fitness of the fungus, whereas these parameters are almost not altered in the sdhBH272Y mutant. Finally, grey mold populations from different origins (country, plant host) were analyzed for their SDHI resistance pheno- and genotypes. Yet, the sdhBH272R/Y mutants were the most frequent, but these frequencies varied according to the agronomical situation. Interestingly, the frequencies of the sdhBH272R mutant seem to increase with the selective pressure exerted by fungicides. This mutant is of particular interest because of the absence of correlation between the fitness we measured and the frequencies we observed in natura.

L’objectif de ces travaux de thèse était de rechercher un potentiel effet inhibiteur de l’acide acétique endogène sur le métabolisme oxydo réductif de Saccharomyces cerevisiae, afin d’évaluer la pertinence d’une stratégie d’amélioration des capacités de production d’éthanol par la modulation de la synthèse de cet acide. Ces travaux devaient également permettre d’approfondir la compréhension des principaux facteurs commandant la synthèse de l’acide acétique et plus largement des acides organiques. La stratégie de modulation de la synthèse d’acide acétique mise en place reposait sur des approches microbiologique et génétique, consistant en l’ajout d’acide oléique et / ou de carnitine dans le milieu de culture ainsi que la surexpression du gène CIT2 ou la suppression du gène ALD6.Cette démarche a permis de montrer que, contrairement à la version exogène, l’acide acétique endogène ne présentait pas d’effet inhibiteur du métabolisme oxydo réductif de Saccharomyces cerevisiae ou qu’il était négligeable par rapport au stress éthanol. En outre, la modulation de la production de cet acide ne semble pas être une stratégie envisageable en vue de l’amélioration des capacités de production d’éthanol de cette levure, bien qu’une corrélation ait été observée entre les titres finaux de ces deux molécules.En outre, il a été montré que l’isoforme 6 de l’acétaldéhyde déshydrogénase (Ald6p) était essentiel pour assurer la croissance cellulaire normale ainsi que les mécanismes de résistance au stress éthanol dans ces conditions de culture. Plus largement, l’interrelation entre les différents isoformes ne paraissait pas aussi flexible qu’en anaérobiose. Saccharomyces cerevisiae semblait également présenter un métabolisme flexible en réponse à une modulation de la synthèse d’acide acétique. La voie des pentoses phosphates serait ainsi capable de prendre le relais de l’Ald6p pour assurer la régénération du NADPH cytosolique, bien que le flux à travers cette voie semble avoir été limité par le ratio NADP+ / NADPH. Enfin, les cellules paraissaient capables de réguler la synthèse de l’acétyl coA à partir d’acide acétique en réaction à une évolution des besoins anaboliques lors de la fin de la phase de croissance. Elles seraient toutefois incapables de pallier le manque d’acétyl coA suite à la suppression du gène ALD6. La modulation de la synthèse des acides pyruvique et succinique a également fait l’objet de discussions. / The aim of this work was to investigate a potential inhibitory effect of endogenous acetic acid on the oxido-reductive metabolism of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, to assess the relevance of a strategy based of the modulation of the synthesis of this acid, to improve ethanol production capacities. This work should also help to broaden the understanding of the main factors controlling the synthesis of acetic acid, and more generally organic acids. The strategy to modulate the synthesis of acetic acid was based on microbiological and genetic approaches, consisting in the addition of oleic acid and / or carnitine in the medium as well as the overexpression of the gene CIT2 or the deletion of the gene ALD6.This approach has shown that, contrary to exogenous version, endogenous acetic acid did not induce inhibitory effects on the oxido-reductive metabolism of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, or was negligible compared to stress caused by ethanol. Moreover, the modulation of the synthesis of this acid appear to be not an attractive strategy to improve ethanol production capacities of the yeast, although a correlation was observed between the end-culture titer of these two molecules.In addition, it has been shown that the isoform 6 of acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (Ald6p) was essential to ensure regular growth and mechanisms of ethanol stress resistance under these conditions of culture. More broadly, the interrelation between the different isoforms did not seem as flexible as under anaerobic conditions. Saccharomyces cerevisiae also seemed to have a flexible metabolism in response to a modulation of the synthesis of acetic acid. The pentose-phosphate way would be able to take over from Ald6p for regeneration of cytosolic NADPH, although the ratio NADP+ / NADPH seemed to lessen the flux through this pathway. Finally, the cells appeared to be able to regulate the synthesis of acetyl-CoA from acetic acid in response to changing in anabolic needs at the end of the growth phase. However, yeasts would be unable to overcome the lack of acetyl-CoA following the suppression of the gene ALD6. The modulation of the synthesis of pyruvic and succinic acids has also been discussed.

Au cours des dernières décennies, l’utilisation de polymères biodégradables a connu un regain d’intérêt pour des applications agricoles. Dans cette étude, nous nous concentrons sur le développement de textiles biodégradables destinés à la protection anti-insecte des cultures. Actuellement, ces textiles doivent être collectés par des entreprises après la saison agricole et entraîne un coût non négligeable pour l’utilisateur. Une alternative serait d’avoir des agro-textiles qui pourraient être collectés par l’utilisateur et minéralisés après quelques mois. Les polymères biodégradables pourraient répondre à ces objectifs. Dans cette étude, nous nous sommes concentrés sur le poly(butylene succinate) un polymère biodégradable et biosourcé. Le PBS a été synthétisé sur un pilote de polycondensation. Néanmoins, le PBS issu de cette synthèse présente de faibles propriétés rhéologiques. La structure du PBS a donc été modifiée par l’incorporation de branchements ou d’allongeurs de chaines. Les propriétés mécaniques ont également été optimisées via la synthèse de systèmes PBS/PLA transréagits et de PBS nanocomposites. Ces PBS modifiés ont été testés au filage. Finalement un fil de PBS avec 0,5% de silice sphérique a été produit à plus grande échelle et un textile a été fabriqué. Le vieillissement de ces fils PBS a été étudié et la conservation des propriétés mécaniques durant l’utilisation du fil en extérieur a été validée. Enfin, une dernière approche plus exploratoire a été testée. Elle consiste en la modification du PBS par des interactions supramoléculaires réversibles en température. / In the last decade, biodegradable polymers have gained significant interest for agricultural applications. Here we focus on the development of biodegradable textiles for insect-proof nets. Currently these textiles must be collected by specialized companies after the growing season and generate disposal cost. An ideal agrotextile would be collected by the user at the end of the growing season, and undergo full mineralization within few months. These requirements can be achieved by using biodegradable polymers. In this study, poly(butylene succinate) (PBS), a biobased and biodegradable polymer was studied. PBS was synthesized by polycondensation on a pilot plant reactor. Because of low rheological properties of the synthesized polyester, the chemical structure of PBS was modified by several approaches like chain extension or branching. The mechanical properties were tuned with the synthesis of PBS/PLA transreacted systems and PBS nanocomposites. These modified PBS were tested upon fiber spinning. Finally a PBS yarn with 0,5% spherical silica was produced at higher scale and a textile was done. Ageing of the PBS yarns was also studied and the conservation of the mechanical properties during use of the textile was validated. Lastly a more exploratory approach was tested. It is synthesis of modified PBS by supramolecular interactions, which are reversible upon temperature.

Os feocromocitomas são tumores neuroendócrinos constituídos de células cromafins secretoras de catecolaminas e neuropeptídeos diversos, cuja manifestação clínica mais comum é a hipertensão. Doze a 24% dos tumores aparentemente esporádicos, apresentam mutações germinativas em genes até então associados a síndromes herdadas, como, RET, VHL, SDHB e SDHD. A doença de von Hippel-Lindau é causada por mutações no gene VHL. As proteínas codificadas pelos genes SDHB e SDHD fazem parte do complexo mitocondrial II e da cadeia aeróbica de transporte de elétrons. O objetivo deste projeto de pesquisa foi o rastreamento de mutações nos genes VHL, SDHB e SDHD em pacientes portadores de feocromocitoma ou, também, paraganglioma esporádicos acompanhados no Serviço de Endocrinologia do Hospital das Clínicas da FMUSP. Todos os exons dos três genes estudados foram amplificados por PCR e analisados por dHPLC. Os amplicons que apresentaram cromatogramas suspeitos ao dHPLC foram submetidos ao seqüenciamento automático. Nenhuma mutação foi encontrada no gene VHL, apenas dois polimorfismos previamente descritos no exon 1, c. -77 C>T em dois pacientes e c - 195 G>A em 58,6% do total de alelos dos pacientes estudados. No gene SDHB foram encontrados dois polimorfismos previamente descritos (c. 201-36 G>T e c.487 T>C) em quatro pacientes, uma mutação silenciosa não descrita (c.540 G>A) e uma mutação previamente descrita em portadores de feocromocitoma (c. 293 G>A). Um mesmo paciente apresentou a mutação silenciosa c.540 G>A e o polimorfismo c.201-36 G>T. No gene SDHD foram encontrados dois polimorfismos descritos (c.204 C>T e c.315-32 T>C) em um paciente cada, uma variante alélica descrita na literatura na região 3\' não codificante cuja freqüência nunca foi estudada em outras populações (c.*612 C>T) e duas substituições nunca descritas na região 3\' não codificante (c.*799 T>C e c.*803 A>G). As variantes c.*612 C>T e c.*799 T>C foram detectadas em apenas um paciente cada e não foram encontradas em 200 alelos de controles normais estudados. A variante c.*803 A>G foi encontrada em nove de 76 alelos dos 38 pacientes (11,8%) e em cinco de 200 alelos de 100 controles não afetados (2,5%), sendo, portanto, um polimorfismo significativamente mais freqüente entre os portadores de feocromocitoma ou paraganglioma. Dentre os sete pacientes portadores do polimorfismo c.*803 A>G, três pacientes heterozigotos para este polimorfismo apresentaram um segundo polimorfismo no gene SDHD, sendo que um desses pacientes também apresentava uma mutação no gene SDHB. Dentre os demais quatro pacientes, dois apresentavam o polimorfismo c.*803 A>G em homozigose. Este polimorfismo ocorre no nucleotídeo localizado na posição -1 imediatamente 5\' ao Sítio de Clivagem do pré-mRNA para que ocorra a inserção da cauda Poli(A), fundamental para a estabilidade do mRNA. A substituição da base A pela base G muito provavelmente apresenta uma repercussão funcional, pois a base A na posição -1 é considerada como a mais eficiente na promoção da clivagem do pré-mRNA, enquanto a base G é considerada a menos eficiente (ordem de eficiência de clivagem A > U > C > G). Desta forma, a possibilidade desse polimorfismo conferir susceptibilidade ao desenvolvimento do feocromocitoma e do paraganglioma não está descartada, sendo provável que outros eventos genéticos sejam necessários para promover a tumorigênese. Em conclusão, esse estudo evidenciou uma baixa freqüência de mutações nas regiões codificantes dos genes VHL (mutações não detectadas), SDHB (5,2%) e SDHD (mutações não detectadas) nessa série de pacientes com feocromocitomas e paragangliomas esporádicos, porém, encontrou um polimorfismo na região 3\' não codificante do gene SDHD significativamente mais freqüente nos portadores desses tumores que em indivíduos controles não afetados, e que, por suas características, pode estar relacionado à etiopatogenia do feocromocitoma e do paraganglioma. / Pheochromocytomas are neuroendocrine tumors composed of chromaffin cells that produce and secrete catecholamines as well as a variety of neuropeptides, whose most common clinical manifestation is arterial hypertension. Twelve to 24% of the apparently sporadic pheochromocytomas, present germline mutations in genes previously associated to inherited familiar syndromes, such as, RET, VHL, SDHB e SDHD. The von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) disease occurs upon the VHL gene mutation - a tumor suppressor gene whose product encodes complexes with other proteins leading proteic substracts to the proteolysis. The proteins encoded by the SDHD and SDHB genes are parts of the complex mitochondrial II, as well as the aerobic chain of the electron transport. The aim of the present study was the screening of mutations in the VHL, SDHB and SDHD genes in patients harboring sporadic pheochromocytoma and/or paraganglioma, followed by the Endocrinology Service of Hospital das Clínicas of the University of São Paulo School of Medicine. All the three studied gene exons were amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and were analyzed by dHPLC, which was the method used for screen mutations. The samples with altered eluting progress were directly sequenced. No mutations were found in the VHL gene, only two polymorphisms previously described in the exon 1, c. -77 C>T in two patients and c - 195 G> in 58.6% out of the total alleles of the studied patients. Two polymorphisms previously described (c. 201-36 G>T and c.487 T>C) in the SDHB gene were found in four patients, as well as silent mutation not yet described (c.540 G>A) and a mutation previously described in patients with pheochromocytoma (c. 293 G>A). A particular patient presented the silent mutation c.540 G>A and the polymorphism c.201-36 G>T. In the SDHD gene two polymorpfisms previously described (c.204 C>T and c.315-32 T>C) were found, one in each patient, as well as an allelic variant previously described in the 3\' non-coding region whose frequency has never been studied in other populations (c.*612 C>T) and two substitutions never described in the 3\' non-coding region (c.*799 T>C and c.*803 A>G). The variants c.*612 C>T and c.*799 T>C were detected in only one patient each and have not been found in 200 alleles of normal control subjects studied. The variant c.*803 A>G was found in nine out of 76 alleles from 38 patients (11.8%) and in five out of 200 alleles from 100 non-affected subjects (2.5%), being, then, a polymorphism significantly more frequent among patients with pheochromocytoma or paraganglioma. Among those seven patients with the polymorphism c.*803 A>G, three patients heterozygotous for the polymorphism presented a second polymorphism in the SDHD gene and one of those patients also presented a mutation in the SDHB gene. Out of the other four patients, two presented the polymorphism c.*803 A>G in heterozygosis. This polymorphism occurs in the nucleotide localized in the position -1 immediately 5\' to the site where the pre-mRNA is cleaved for the insertion of the poly(A) tail, which is essencial to the mRNA stability. The substitution of the A to the G probably presents a functional repercussion, because the A in the position -1 is considered as the most efficient nucleotide in the pre-mRNA cleavage promotion, while the G is considered the least efficient one (scale of cleavage efficiency A > U > C > G). Therefore, the possibility of this polymorphism be associated with susceptibility to the development of pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma is not discarded, being possible that other genetic events are necessary to promote tumorigenesis. In conclusion, this study evidenced a low frequency of mutations in the coding regions of the genes VHL (mutations not detected), SDHB (5,2%) and SDHD (mutations not detected) in this series of patients with sporadic pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas, however, a polymorphism significantly more frequent in patients harboring those tumors was found in the 3\' non-coding region of the SDHD gene and, for its specific characteristics, it can very well be related to the etiopathogenesis of the pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma

Os sistemas multiparticulados são aqueles nos quais a dose do fármaco está dividida em pequenas unidades funcionais, tendo assim, uma série de vantagens sobre os sistemas monolíticos convencionais. Este trabalho teve por objetivo desenvolver formulações multiparticuladas de uso oral para fármacos anti-hipertensivos que serão utilizados na composição de associações. O material está dividido em seis capítulos, sendo inicialmente apresentada uma revisão da literatura a respeito da caracterização física destas pequenas unidades. Ensaios como análise granulométrica, morfologia, densidade, porosidade, avaliação de resistência mecânica e desintegração são os mais empregados para esta finalidade, possibilitando ao formulador conhecer os fatores de maior impacto relacionados às matérias primas e ao processo de fabricação no comportamento das formulações produzidas. Os demais capítulos seguem com o desenvolvimento dos sistemas multiparticulados, que foram embasados em diferentes delineamentos experimentais, seja pela utilização de planejamento fatorial fracionado ou projeto de mistura. Para o metoprolol, fármaco de alta solubilidade, foram produzidas formulações de liberação controlada, sendo a estratégia dividida em três etapas: (I) Produção de minicomprimidos revestidos, nos quais foram avaliadas diferentes combinações do polímero modulador de liberação; (II) otimização do perfil de liberação do fármaco, com avaliação de misturas das formulações produzidas na primeira etapa; (III) Processo de extrusão a quente, no qual diferentes proporções de fármaco e polímero hidrofóbico foram avaliadas. Para os fármacos hidroclorotiazida e olmesartana medoxomila, ambos de baixa solubilidade, a estratégia adotada foi a incorporação de uma dispersão dos fármacos e agentes solubilizantes em grânulos inertes obtidos por extrusão/revestimento. Adicionalmente, também foram produzidas formulações por extrusão a quente de diferentes proporções destes fármacos em polímero hidrofílico. De acordo com os resultados obtidos, foi possível obter formulações de minicomprimidos e grânulos com perfil de dissolução satisfatório, semelhantes aos apresentados pelos medicamentos adotados como referência. Em relação à extrusão a quente foi possível avaliar a influência do processo e polímeros empregados no perfil de dissolução dos grânulos produzidos. / Multiparticulate systems are dosage forms in which dose is divided into small functional units presenting some advantages over monolithic conventional systems. The objective of this work was developing multiparticulate formulations for oral use containing antihypertensive drugs to be used in association. The thesis is divided into six issues, been first presented a literature review about physical characterization of multiparticulate systems. Granulometric analysis, morphology, density, porosity, mechanical strength and disintegration are the most used physical characterization tests, enabling formulator knowing the major impact factors related to raw materials and manufacturing process in the performance of the produced formulations. The other issues present the development of the multiparticulate systems based on different statistical experimental design, as fractional factorial design or mixture project. For metoprolol, a highly soluble drug, controlled release formulations were obtained, and the strategy was divided into three steps: (I) coated minitablets production, where different combinations of the controlled release polymer were analyzed; (II) drug release profile optimization, evaluating formulations mixtures produced in the first step; (III) hot melt extrusion process, where different drug: hydrophobic polymer ratios were evaluated. For hydrochlorothiazide and olmesartan medoxomil, both low soluble drugs, the strategy was incorporating a dispersion containing the drugs and solubilizing agents in inert granules obtained by extrusion/coating processes. Additionally, formulations containing different ratios of these drugs and hydrophilic polymers were produced by hot melt extrusion. According to the results, it was possible to obtain minitablets and granules with good dissolution profile, similar to the reference products. Regarding to hot melt extrusion, it was possible to evaluate the influence of process and polymers used in the dissolution profile of the produced granules.

Orientador: Massao Ionashiro / Banca: João Olímpio Tognolli / Banca: Eder Tadeu Gomes Cavalheiro / Resumo: Esse trabalho descreve a síntese e caracterização dos succinatos de metais de transição bivalentes, MC2H4C2O4·nH2O (M = Mn(II), Fe(II), Co(II), Ni(II), Cu(II), Zn(II)), no estado sólido. Inicialmente prepararam-se os carbonatos dos respectivos íons metálicos adicionando-se lentamente e sob agitação solução saturada de hidrogeno carbonato de sódio à solução de cloreto (Mn, Co, Ni, Zn) ou sulfato (Fe, Cu), até precipitação completa dos íons metálicos. Os succinatos foram obtidos fazendo-se reagir os carbonatos dos íons metálicos com solução de ácido succínico. Os compostos sintetizados foram estudados empregando termogravimetria e análise térmica diferencial simultânea (TG-DTA), termogravimetria derivada (DTG), calorimetria exploratória diferencial (DSC), difratometria de raios X pelo método do pó, espectroscopia no infravermelho, termogravimetria acoplada à espectroscopia de absorção na região do infravermelho com transformada de Fourier (TG-FTIR) e complexometria. Os resultados forneceram informações sobre o comportamento térmico, cristalinidade, modos de coordenação etc. Também foi possível identificar os produtos liberados durante o aquecimento. Os resíduos finais foram Mn3O4, Fe2O3, Co3O4, NiO, CuO e ZnO / Abstract: In this work, the synthesis and characterization of bivalent transition metal ion succinates in the solid state, MC2H4C2O4·nH2O (M = Mn(II), Fe(II), Co(II), Ni(II), Cu(II), Zn(II)), are described. Firstly, the respective metal ion carbonates were prepared by slow addition of sodium hydrogen carbonate saturate solution to the chloride (Mn, Co, Ni, Zn) or sulphate (Fe, Cu) solution under continuous magnetic stirring until complete precipitation of the metal ions. The succinates were obtained by reacting carbonate of the metal ions with succinic acid solution. The synthesized compounds were characterized by simultaneous thermogravimetry and differential thermal analysis (TGDTA), Thermogravimetry derivative (DTG), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Xray powder diffractometry, infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetry coupled to absorption spectroscopy in the region of infrared with Fourier transform (TG-FTIR) and complexometry. The results provided information about the thermal behavior, crystallinity, modes of coordination etc. It was also possible to identify the products evolved during heating. The final residues were Mn3O4, Fe2O3, Co3O4, NiO, CuO and ZnO / Mestre

<p>A solid phase extraction (SPE) method was developed for simultaneous extraction of dicarboxylic acids and diols formed during hydrolysis of poly(butylene succinate), PBS, and poly(butylene adipate), PBA. The developed SPE method and subsequent GC-MS analysis were used to extract, identify and quantify low molecular weight products migrating from linear and branched poly(butylene adipate) (PBA) and poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) during aging in aqueous media. The combination of SPE and GC-MS proved to be a sensitive tool, able to detect small differences in the degradation rate during early stages of hydrolysis before any significant differences were observed by weight loss and molecular weight measurements. The detected low molecular weight products included monomers i.e. adipic acid and 1,4-butanediol for the PBA polymers and succinic acid and 1,4-butanediol for PBS. Several dimers and trimers i.e. hydroxybutyl adipate, hydroxybutyl succinate, di(hydroxybutyl) adipate, di(hydroxybutyl) succinate and hydroxybutyl disuccinate were also detected. Best extraction efficiency for 1,4-butanediol and succinic acid was achieved with a hydroxylated polystyrene-divinylbenzene resin as solid phase. Linear range for the extracted analytes was 1-500 ng/ml for adipic acid and 2-500 ng/ml for 1,4-butanediol and succinic acid. Detection and quantification limits for all analytes were between 1-2 ng/ml (S/N=3) and 2-7 ng/ml (S/N=10) respectively. Relative standard deviations were between 3 % and 7 %. Comparison of measured weight loss and the amount of monomeric products showed that weight loss during early stages of hydrolysis was mainly caused by the release of water-soluble oligomers that on prolonged ageing were further hydrolyzed to monomeric species. Significant differences in degradation rate could be assigned to degree of branching, molecular weight, aging temperature and degradation medium.</p><p>Linear and branched PBA was mixed with PVC in solution cast films to study the effects of molecular weight and branching on plasticizer efficiency. Used as polymeric plasticizer, PBA formed a semi-miscible two-phase system with PVC where the amorphous part exhibited one single glass transition temperature and the degree of polyester crystallinity was dependent on molecular weight, degree of branching and blend composition. Plasticizing efficiency was favored by higher degree of branching and a 40 weight-percent polyester composition.</p>

Succinat und ihre Derivate werden in vielfältiger Weise in den Bereichen Tenside, Lebensmittel, Pharmazeutika und Polymere angewendet. Aufgrund der derzeit kostenintensiven petrochemischen Synthese ist die aerobe nicht-konventionelle Hefe Yarrowia (Y.) lipolytica für die biotechnologische Succinatsynthese von großem Interesse. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde das Potential dieser Hefe für eine industrielle Succinatproduktion unter Betrachtung des Einflusses der enzymatischen Aktivitäten von Succinyl-CoA Synthetase und Pyruvat-Carboxylase auf die Succinatsynthese untersucht. Es wurde eine Steigerung der Succinatausbeute um 40 % durch die Erhöhung der Pyruvat-Carboxylase Aktivität um den Faktor 7-8 gemeinsam mit der Deletion des Gens der β Untereinheit der Succinyl-CoA Synthetase im genetisch veränderten Y. lipolytica Stamm H222-AK10 (mcPYC Δscs2) erzielt. Unter Verwendung von Glycerol als C-Quelle wurde eine Erhöhung der Succinatbildung der Transformande H222 AK10 im Vergleich zum Wildtyp von 5,1 ± 0,7 g/l auf 8,7 ± 1,6 g/l nachgewiesen. Die Raum-Zeit-Ausbeute dieses Hefestammes verdoppelte sich von 11,9 ± 1,3 mg/l*h auf 21,9 ± 2,5 mg/l*h. Eine Erhöhung der Sekretion organischer Säuren gelang hingegen nicht durch den alleinigen Verlust der Succinyl-CoA Synthetase Aktivität in den Stämmen H222-AK4 (scs1::URA3), H222-AK8 (scs2:.URA3) und H222-AK9 (scs1::URA3 Δscs2) oder durch die alleinige Aktivitätserhöhung der Pyruvat-Carboxylase in H222-AK1 (mcPYC). Des Weiteren wurde ein Y. lipolytica Stamm erzeugt, der durch die Überexpression der für die Succinyl-CoA Synthetase kodierenden Gene SCS1 und SCS2 charakterisiert ist. Die Transformande H222 AK2 (mcSCS1 mcSCS2) bildete unter den gleichen Kultivierungsbedingungen durchschnittlich 2 g/l weniger Succinat als der Wildtyp (5,1 ± 0,7 g/l). Auch die zusätzliche Erhöhung der Pyruvat-Carboxylase Aktivität um den Faktor 4 in der Transformande H222 AK3 (mcPYC mcSCS1 mcSCS2) konnte den negativen Effekt der erhöhten Gen-Dosen von SCS1 und SCS2 auf die Succinatsynthese nicht aufheben. Dementsprechend wurden für H222-AK3 eine Succinatausbeute von 3,1 ± 0,3 g/l bestimmt.

La concentration microbienne des nuages collectés depuis le sommet du puy de Dôme se situe, en bruit de fond, autour de 5x10puissance 4 cell.mL-1 pour les bactéries, et 5x10puissance3 cell.mL-1 pour les champignons. La plus grande partie d'entres elles est viable, comme le montrent les mesures de concentration en ATP. Les souches isolées présentent des propriétés physiologiques d'intérêt pour la survie dans le nuage (pigments, capacité de se développer à basse température). Ils sont capables de dégrader, même à basse température, des composés organiques présents en quantité importante dans l'eau des nuages , comme le formiate, l'acétate, le lactate, le succinate, le méthanol et le formaldéhyde. Enfin, plusieurs souches ont une capacité élevée à agir comme noyau glaçogène. Cette étude suggère que les microorganismes pourraient être impliqués dans les processus chimiques et physiques qui se déroulent dans les nuages, et leur importance est à ce titre, à reconsidérer de façon globale.

Os sistemas multiparticulados são aqueles nos quais a dose do fármaco está dividida em pequenas unidades funcionais, tendo assim, uma série de vantagens sobre os sistemas monolíticos convencionais. Este trabalho teve por objetivo desenvolver formulações multiparticuladas de uso oral para fármacos anti-hipertensivos que serão utilizados na composição de associações. O material está dividido em seis capítulos, sendo inicialmente apresentada uma revisão da literatura a respeito da caracterização física destas pequenas unidades. Ensaios como análise granulométrica, morfologia, densidade, porosidade, avaliação de resistência mecânica e desintegração são os mais empregados para esta finalidade, possibilitando ao formulador conhecer os fatores de maior impacto relacionados às matérias primas e ao processo de fabricação no comportamento das formulações produzidas. Os demais capítulos seguem com o desenvolvimento dos sistemas multiparticulados, que foram embasados em diferentes delineamentos experimentais, seja pela utilização de planejamento fatorial fracionado ou projeto de mistura. Para o metoprolol, fármaco de alta solubilidade, foram produzidas formulações de liberação controlada, sendo a estratégia dividida em três etapas: (I) Produção de minicomprimidos revestidos, nos quais foram avaliadas diferentes combinações do polímero modulador de liberação; (II) otimização do perfil de liberação do fármaco, com avaliação de misturas das formulações produzidas na primeira etapa; (III) Processo de extrusão a quente, no qual diferentes proporções de fármaco e polímero hidrofóbico foram avaliadas. Para os fármacos hidroclorotiazida e olmesartana medoxomila, ambos de baixa solubilidade, a estratégia adotada foi a incorporação de uma dispersão dos fármacos e agentes solubilizantes em grânulos inertes obtidos por extrusão/revestimento. Adicionalmente, também foram produzidas formulações por extrusão a quente de diferentes proporções destes fármacos em polímero hidrofílico. De acordo com os resultados obtidos, foi possível obter formulações de minicomprimidos e grânulos com perfil de dissolução satisfatório, semelhantes aos apresentados pelos medicamentos adotados como referência. Em relação à extrusão a quente foi possível avaliar a influência do processo e polímeros empregados no perfil de dissolução dos grânulos produzidos. / Multiparticulate systems are dosage forms in which dose is divided into small functional units presenting some advantages over monolithic conventional systems. The objective of this work was developing multiparticulate formulations for oral use containing antihypertensive drugs to be used in association. The thesis is divided into six issues, been first presented a literature review about physical characterization of multiparticulate systems. Granulometric analysis, morphology, density, porosity, mechanical strength and disintegration are the most used physical characterization tests, enabling formulator knowing the major impact factors related to raw materials and manufacturing process in the performance of the produced formulations. The other issues present the development of the multiparticulate systems based on different statistical experimental design, as fractional factorial design or mixture project. For metoprolol, a highly soluble drug, controlled release formulations were obtained, and the strategy was divided into three steps: (I) coated minitablets production, where different combinations of the controlled release polymer were analyzed; (II) drug release profile optimization, evaluating formulations mixtures produced in the first step; (III) hot melt extrusion process, where different drug: hydrophobic polymer ratios were evaluated. For hydrochlorothiazide and olmesartan medoxomil, both low soluble drugs, the strategy was incorporating a dispersion containing the drugs and solubilizing agents in inert granules obtained by extrusion/coating processes. Additionally, formulations containing different ratios of these drugs and hydrophilic polymers were produced by hot melt extrusion. According to the results, it was possible to obtain minitablets and granules with good dissolution profile, similar to the reference products. Regarding to hot melt extrusion, it was possible to evaluate the influence of process and polymers used in the dissolution profile of the produced granules.