Tropical rain forests around the world suffer from deforestation, which is caused mainly by small-scale farmers. These farmers largely employ slash-and-burn methods to clear the land for agricultural settlement. Agroforestry systems are widely found in the humid tropics, where they could have great potential to increase the productivity of farming systems and sustain continuous crop production and they are also supposed to conserve biodiversity. As a group of freshwater invertebrates, dragonflies (Odonata) are commonly used as ecological indicators of freshwater ecosystems. The main objective of the study is to assess the impact of land use changes on dragonflies (Odonata) species richness and diversity, namely primary and secondary forest, cocoa agroforest and slash-and-burn agriculture in the Tropical Africa. We hypothesize, that the species richness and diversity of dragonflies decrease with disturbance of the ecosystems, along the land-use changes gradient.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-04-20T12:31:11Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Rogerio Eiji Hanada.pdf: 659208 bytes, checksum: 3edd1deee7d95cb812891d0f6918caa6 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006-03-30 / Black pod rot of cacao (Theobroma cacao) is one of the most important diseases affecting the crop worldwide. It is responsible for reducing over than 30% of the cocoa production every year. The disease is caused by Phytophthora spp. being P. palmivora (Butler) Butler one of the most common species in the cocoa growing area of Bahia, Brazil. Fungal endophytes were collected from healthy plants of cacao and cupuaçu (Theobroma grandiflorum (willd. ex Spreng.) Shum. from the states of Amazonas and Bahia, Brazil. The main objectives of this project were to isolate and to select endophytic fungi with biocontrol potential against P. palmivora. Three hundred fungal endophytes were obtained, being 104 screened against P. palmivora based on artificial inoculations of attached pods. Field experiments were performed at Almirante Cacau (Bahia-Brazil). Evaluations of disease severity were possible by using a disease rating scale specifically developed. Eight fungal isolates were selected and tested in the axenic cocoa seedlings for proving the endophytic behavior. From 103 fungi tested in the field, a Trichoderma viride Pers. ex S.F. Gray isolate was selected as the most promising candidate. This fungus was applied on cocoa plants in the field for evaluating its life span in several plant organs. The optimum spore concentration was established and formulation studies for a high performance application were evaluated. The compatibility for a tank mix application with chemical fungicides was tested and also several methods for mass production by solid state fermentation. Studies on the mode of action was carried out by evaluating the production of chitinase, b1,3 glucanase and celulase. With the exception of Tolypocladium sp., all the isolates tested: Three Fusarium, 2 Pestalotiopsis, one Curvularia and T. viride were recovered from the axenic cocoa plants. T. viride on adult cocoa plants showed an efficient epiphytic colonization on the pod surface and inside the trunk as an endophyte, been recovered after 35 and 50 days after application. The disease severity reduced by increasing the inoculum concentration up to 107 conídios.ml-1. The addition of an emulsified vegetable oil was responsible to increase the antagonist efficacy. The T. viride population over the pods decreased after 20 days. After 40 days the fungus was more dificult yor recoveretion. Disease severity increased by decreasing the antagonist population. T. viride germination was not affected by the Cooper hydroxide and Fosetil. A spore concentration of over 108 was achieved using rice as a substrate. The antagonist could grow and secrete b1,3 glucanase and chytinase in all the liquid media tested, however only on media supplemented with carboxymetilcelulose and P. palmivora mycelium were able to induce the production of celulase. / A podridão-parda do fruto de cacaueiro (Theobroma cacau) é considerada mundialmente a doença mais importante da cultura. Várias espécies de Phytophthora estão associadas à doença, sendo P. palmivora a de maior ocorrência na Bahia. O trabalho teve como objetivo isolar e selecionar fungos endofíticos com potencial de controlar a podridãoparda. A viabilização da aplicação no campo e o provável modo de ação também foram estudados. Os fungos endofíticos foram isolados de cacaueiros e cupuaçuzeiros (T. grandiflorum) dos estados do Amazonas e Bahia. A seleção foi conduzida em plantio comercial da Empresa Almirante Cacau, em Itajuípe, BA. Posteriormente, oito isolados selecionados, em campo, como os mais eficientes foram submetidos ao estudo de comprovação endofítica utilizando cacaueiros axênicos. O fungo endofítico mais eficiente no controle da doença, foi aplicado em plantas adultas e a sua sobrevivência foi avaliada nos órgãos da planta. Concentrações de 104, 105, 106, 107 e 5,0 x 107 conídios.ml-1, formulações em óleo agrícola vegetal emulsionado (Nortox) 2 % e sacarose 2%, comportamento da severidade da doença com o declínio da população do antagonista, compatibilidade com os fungicidas hidróxido de cobre e fosetil Al, produção massal de inóculo utilizando substrato de arroz e a produção extracelular de quitinase, b1,3 glucanase e celulase, em meio de cultura líquido, foram também avaliados. Foram testados 103 isolados de fungos endofíticos, sendo que Trichoderma viride foi o mais eficiente no controle da doença. Exceto Tolypocladium sp., os demais fungos: três isolados de Fusarium, dois de Pestalotiopsis, um isolado de Curvularia sp. e um de T. viride foram recuperados após a inoculação em cacaueiros axênicos. Trichoderma viride, em planta adulta, apresentou boa colonização epifítica, na parte externa do fruto, e como endofítico no interior do caule, sendo recuperado, com maior freqüência, em até 35 a 50 dias após a aplicação. A severidade da doença foi inversamente proporcional às concentrações de inóculo do antagonista, até 107 conídios.ml-1 e a adição do óleo vegetal na suspensão aumentou a eficiência do bioagente. A população de T. viride aplicado no fruto diminuiu rapidamente, em 20 dias de aplicação e, aos 40 dias, a recuperação tornou-se difícil. Por outro lado, a severidade da doença aumentou, à medida que a população de T. viride diminuiu. Trichoderma viride foi mais sensível ao hidróxido de cobre, porém a germinação dos conídios se manteve acima de 90% em solução fungicida na concentração recomenda pelo fabricante. Concentração acima de 108 conídios.g-1 do antagonista foi produzida em grãos de arroz. O bioagente cresceu e secretou b1,3 glucanase e quitinase em todos os meios de cultura, no entanto, somente os meios suplementados com carboximetilcelulose e micélio de P. palmivora foram capazes de induzir o fungo a secretar celulase.

Orientador: Nelson Horacio Pezoa Garcia / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-12T13:00:47Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Efraim_Priscilla_D.pdf: 3005113 bytes, checksum: 644805cbb4b729e262d0a9e849b572b8 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009 / Resumo: Este trabalho buscou contribuir com o Programa Brasileiro de Melhoramento Genético de Cacau por meio do processamento e caracterização dos principais derivados de nove clones estudados e utilizados comercialmente na Bahia por sua resistência à vassoura-de-bruxa: CEPEC 42, EET 397, TSA 654, TSA 656, TSAN 792, TSH 516, TSH 565, TSH 774, TSH 1188 e do cacau Comum, tradicional na região e suscetível à doença. Os frutos foram colhidos em um mesmo período, fermentados simultaneamente em lotes de 50 Kg e secos naturalmente ao sol. As amêndoas obtidas foram quebradas em nibs, que foram torrados em 3 diferentes tempos em forno elétrico rotativo a 150 ºC e moídos até 25 µm para obtenção dos liquors. A análise sensorial de preferência definiu o tempo de torração de cada material. A manteiga de cacau foi obtida por prensagem hidráulica dos liquors. Chocolates amargos foram produzidos pelo método convencional. A caracterização física dos frutos e sementes demonstrou diferenças entre os materiais quanto ao peso total dos frutos e rendimento de sementes com polpa por fruto. O monitoramento de temperatura e pH da massa em fermentação e a avaliação dos teores de umidade, atividade de água, pH, acidez total titulável, açúcares, ácidos orgânicos, proteínas, compostos fenólicos totais e da contagem microbiológica, durante a fermentação e ao término da secagem, demonstraram que a evolução do processo fermentativo foi distinta para cada material. A caracterização da manteiga de cacau quanto à composição em triacilgliceróis e curva de sólidos indicou que os todos os cultivares estudados, exceto o TSH 774, apresentaram melhorias em relação ao cacau Comum. A análise sensorial descritiva quantitativa dos liquors por duas equipes treinadas e de aceitação dos chocolates, por painel não treinado de consumidores, indicaram diferenças entre os materiais para alguns atributos avaliados de acordo com sua ascendência genética, sendo que os materiais descendentes dos grupos Trinitário e Forastero apresentaram maior preferência em relação aos descendentes apenas do grupo Forastero. Apesar das diferenças físicas e químicas verificadas nos liquors e chocolates, observou-se a viabilidade industrial de todos dos materiais estudados. Estudou-se ainda a influência da mistura de 0, 30, 50 e 100% de sementes danificadas pela vassoura-de-bruxa com sementes sadias na fermentação às características de amêndoas, liquors, manteiga e pó de cacau obtidos. Os perfis de temperatura e pH da massa em fermentação, os teores de açúcares e ácidos orgânicos e a análise da fração volátil demonstraram que reações que normalmente ocorrem na fermentação podem ter se iniciado nos frutos, antes da colheita. O teor de polifenóis totais das sementes danificadas foi maior que o de sementes sadias, porém, as perdas na fermentação foram maiores. Os teores de lipídios e proteínas das amêndoas e liquors foram menores quanto maior a proporção de sementes danificadas. A vassoura-de-bruxa não causou alterações nas propriedades físicas e químicas avaliadas nas manteigas de cacau. A análise da fração volátil das sementes, amêndoas e liquors indicou que o aumento do teor de sementes danificadas levou à diminuição ou ausência de importantes alquilpirazinas, indicando que o uso destas, nas porcentagens estudadas, pode prejudicar a qualidade sensorial dos derivados de cacau / Abstract: The aim of this study was to contribute with the Brazilian Genetic Improvement Program of cocoa by processing and characterizing the main cocoa-derived products from nine clones studied and used commercially in Bahia due to their resistance to ¿witches¿ broom¿: CEPEC 42, EET 397, TSA 654, TSA 656, TSAN 792, TSH 516, TSH 565, TSH 774, TSH 1188 and Comum cocoa, traditional in the area and susceptible to the disease. The fruits were harvested in the same period, fermented in 50 kg batches and sun-dried. The cocoa beans obtained were broken into nibs, roasted during 3 different times in a rotative electric oven at 150ºC and milled to 25 µm to obtain the liquors. A preference sensory evaluation defined the specific roasting time for each material. Cocoa butter was obtained by hydraulic pressing of the liquors. Bitter chocolates were produced by the conventional method. The physical characterization of the fruits and seeds demonstrated differences among the materials regarding total weight of the fruits and yield of seeds with pulp per fruit. Temperature and pH monitoring of the mass during fermentation and evaluation of moisture content, water activity, pH, total acidity, sugars, organic acids, proteins, total phenolic compounds and microbiological count during fermentation and at the end of drying demonstrated that the evolution of the fermentation process was different for each material. The triacylglycerol composition and the solid fat content of the cocoa butters from all the cultivars studied, except TSH 774, presented improvements compared to Comum cocoa. The quantitative descriptive analysis of the liquors carried out by two trained panels and the acceptance of the chocolates by an untrained consumer panel indicated differences for some of the parameters evaluated among the materials studied according to their genetic ascendance. The cultivars descending from Trinitario and Forastero groups presented greater preference in relation to the descendants of the Forastero group only. The physical and chemical characterization of the liquors and chocolates demonstrated differences among the materials studied; however, it also showed their industrial viability. The influence of the mixture of 0, 30, 50 and 100% of seeds damaged by ¿witches¿ broom¿ with healthy seeds during the fermentation process on the characteristics of cocoa beans, liquors, cocoa butter and powder was also studied. The temperature and pH profiles of the mass during fermentation, the amounts of sugars and organic acids and the analysis of volatile compounds demonstrated that some reactions that usually occur during fermentation might have been initiated in the fruits before harvesting. The total content of polyphenols in the damaged seeds was higher than in the healthy seeds; however, losses during fermentation were also greater. Lipid and protein contents of cocoa beans and liquors decreased with the increase of the proportion of damaged seeds. ¿Witches¿ broom¿ did not cause changes in the physical and chemical properties evaluated in the cocoa butters. The analysis of the volatile compounds of the seeds, beans and liquors showed that the increase of the content of damaged seeds led to the decrease or absence of the main alkylpyrazines, indicating that their use in the percentages studied may negatively affect the sensory quality of cocoa-derived products / Doutorado / Doutor em Tecnologia de Alimentos

Depuis plusieurs années, les programmes de recherche chez le cacaoyer ont mis l'accent sur l'étude des bases génétiques des caractères agronomiques d'intérêt, notamment concernant la résistance aux maladies et la qualité des fèves de cacao, qui représentent deux attributs importants pour la cacaoculture et la production de chocolat. Ce travail présente, par l'exploration du transcriptome et du génome du cacaoyer, la constitution de ressources moléculaires et l'analyse des voies de biosynthèse impliquées dans plusieurs de ces caractères agronomiques d'intérêt. L'étude du transcriptome a permis l'identification de plusieurs dizaines de milliers de gènes exprimés dans divers organes et pour différentes conditions environnementales et ont fourni de nombreux marqueurs moléculaires qui ont été utilisés pour réaliser des cartes génétiques haute densité. Les informations apportées par ce travail ont permis d’engager le séquençage du génome de la variété Criollo du cacaoyer. Son analyse et son annotation ont apporté un ensemble d'informations biologiques cruciales, depuis le catalogue des gènes et éléments mobiles jusqu'aux aspects évolutifs qui a révélé une structure du génome peu remanié par rapport à l'ancêtre commun aux dicotylédones. Par la suite, les travaux que nous avons menés pour améliorer la séquence complète ont conduit à une réduction considérable de la fragmentation chromosomique observée dans la première version. Par ailleurs 97% de la séquence assemblée et 99% des gènes sont désormais ancrés sur les chromosomes du cacaoyer. Pour commencer à exploiter cette nouvelle séquence du génome, nous avons conduit une étude QTL à partir d'une descendance entre Trinitario implantée en Guyane, permettant de localiser les régions génomiques impliquées dans la variation de la couleur des fèves de cacao. En s'appuyant sur la version améliorée du génome du Criollo, nous avons identifié deux gènes potentiellement impliqués dans la voie de biosynthèse des anthocyanines et flavonoïdes dans la principale région génomique concernée. Un des deux gènes, situé proche du marqueur situé au pic du QTL et codant pour une chalcone synthase, semble être un gène candidat prometteur. L'étude comparative de sa structure dans le génome du Criollo (à fève blanche) et du génome de l'Amelonado (à fève violette) a mis en évidence des différences structurales pouvant être à l'origine d'une modification fonctionnelle. L'ensemble des résultats présentés dans ce travail de thèse apporte une connaissance et des outils variés qui peuvent être exploités par de multiples approches intégrées pour étudier la génétique du cacaoyer. / For several years, cocoa research programs have focused on studying the genetic basis of agronomic traits of interest, especially for disease resistance and quality of cocoa beans, two important attributes for cocoa farmers and chocolate production. This work presents, by exploring the transcriptome and cocoa genome, the constitution of molecular resources and the analysis of biosynthesis pathways involved in several of these agronomical traits. The transcriptome study allowed the identification of several tens of thousands of genes expressed in various organs and for different environmental conditions and provided numerous molecular markers, used to produce high-density genetic maps. The information provided by this work led to the genome sequencing of a cocoa Criollo variety. Its analysis and annotation have provided a set of crucial biological information, from the catalog of genes and transposable elements to evolutionary aspects, which revealed a close evolutionary relationship to the eudicot putative ancestor, showing a limited number of recombination between ancestral chromosomes. Subsequently, the work we carried out to improve the complete sequence led to a considerable reduction of the chromosomal fragmentation observed in the first version. In addition, 97% of the assembled sequence and 99% of the genes are now anchored on the cocoa chromosomes. To exploit this new sequence of the genome, we conducted a QTL study from a progeny between Trinitario clones established in French Guiana, allowing to identify genomic regions involved in color trait variation observed in cocoa beans. Based on the improved version of the Criollo genome, we identified two genes potentially involved in the biosynthesis pathway of anthocyanins and flavonoids in the main genomic region concerned. One of the two genes is located nearby the QTL peak and encoding a chalcone synthase, appears to be a promising candidate gene. The comparative study of its structure in the Criollo genome (white bean) and in the Amelonado genome (purple bean) revealed several variations that could be responsible for functional modifications. The results presented in this thesis provide a variety of knowledge and tools useful to conduct multiple integrated approaches to studying cocoa tree genetics.

No description available.

Le cacaoyer (Theobroma cacao, L.) est cultivé dans les tropiques humides d'Amérique latine, d'Afrique et d'Asie. Principale source de revenus d'une agriculture essentiellement familiale, les systèmes agroforestiers à base de cacaoyers fournissent de nombreux services écologiques et contribuent à la conservation de la biodiversité. Ces systèmes associent plantes ligneuses et cultures de manière simultanée, dans une gamme importante et peu décrite de richesses et de structures botaniques. Les connaissances actuelles sur leur productivité se limitent à des essais en milieu contrôlé associant un petit nombre d'espèces. Nos travaux testent l'hypothèse d'une relation de compromis entre le niveau de productivité des cacaoyers et le niveau de biodiversité hébergée par les agroforêts à base de cacaoyers. Nous caractérisons ces compromis sur un gradient de situations de production paysannes, reposant sur la structure verticale, l'intensité de gestion de la composante végétale et le contexte bio-physique des agro-systèmes étudiés. Sur un dispositif de 36 cacaoyères paysannes situées dans la région de Talamanca, Costa Rica, nous montrons que des variations significatives de la structure végétale reflètent les modes de gestion de la parcelle et affectent le rendement par cacaoyer (295 à 667g/arbre/an) mais pas le rendement en cacao (136 kg/ha/an), ni le volume végétal global (400 m3/ha). Ces variations de la structure végétale affectent peu la diversité α des peuplements de plantes associées, d'épiphytes, d'amphibiens, de reptiles, de mamifères, d'invertébrés du sol et de la litière, mais leur diversité β répond de manière contrastée à ces variations d'habitat. Les relations de compromis que nous mettons finalement en évidence entre la productivité en cacao marchand à l'hectare ou à l'arbre et les niveaux de biodiversité atteints sont de nature (linéaire, cubique, quadratique) et de tendances (négative, postive) contrastées selon le taxon considéré et remettent en cause les résultats de certains travaux récents. Nos travaux dévoilent également des situations de compromis optimales, offrant des perspectives positives pour l'intensification écologique des systèmes agroforestiers tropicaux. / Cacao (Theobroma cacao, L.) is cultivated in the humid tropics of Latin America, Africa and Asia. Cocoa-based agroforestry systems are the main source of income for smallholders' families and provide numerous ecological services and contribute to biodiversity conservation. These systems associate trees with crops simultaneously, in a wide and poorly described range of botanical and structural plant diversity. The current knowledge about their productivity is restricted to controlled trials with a low numer of associated plant species. Our work tests the hypothesis of a trade-off relationship between the level of cocoa productivity and the level of biodiversity hosted in cocoa-based agroforests. We characterize these trade-offs on a gradient of production situations, based on the vertical structure, the management intensity of the vegetal component and the bio-physical context of cocoa-based agroforests. On the base of a 36 on farm cocoa plots network located in Talamanca, Costa Rica, we show that significant variations in the vegetation vertical structure reflect farmer's management strategies and affect the cocoa yield per tree (295 to 667g/tree/year) but neither the cocoa yield per plot (136 kg/ha/year), nor the global plant volume (400 m3/ha). The variations in vegetation structure poorly affected the α-diversity of 7 plant and animal taxa, but their β-diversity gave contrasted and significant responses to habitat variations. Finally, the trade-offs relationships we display between dry cocoa productivity per hectare or per tree and the observed biodiversity levels showed contrasted forms (cubic, quadratic, linear) and tendances (positive, negative) according to the taxa considered and question results from recent publications. Our work also revealed optimal trade-off situations which offer positive prospects for the ecological intensification of tropical agroforestry systems.

La cacaoculture est aujourd'hui considérée comme un des principaux facteurs de déforestation en milieu tropical. Dans de nombreux pays, elle repose en effet sur un modèle technique peu durable de monoculture intensive impliquant le déplacement des zones de production. Souvent délaissés par la recherche en raison de leurs faibles rendements en cacao marchand, les systèmes agroforestiers à base de cacaoyer apparaissent aujourd'hui comme une alternative crédible pour faire face aux nouveaux enjeux de la cacaoculture mondiale. Au Centre-Sud du Cameroun, la cacaoculture repose en grande partie sur des cacaoyères agroforestières anciennes, ce qui pose l'hypothèse qu'un modèle de cacaoculture durable basé sur des systèmes de culture agroforestiers est possible. Notre objectif est de mieux comprendre le fonctionnement de ces systèmes agroforestiers à base de cacaoyer, à travers leurs caractéristiques, leurs évolutions et leurs déterminants, ainsi que les conditions de leur production en cacao marchand sur le long terme. Notre démarche articule à la fois une évaluation des systèmes agroforestiers complexes à l'échelle de la parcelle et une analyse compréhensive des pratiques techniques sur le temps long. La thèse repose sur un dispositif de recherche mis en place dans la région du Centre, dans trois zones de culture différenciables par leurs conditions pédo-climatiques (Bokito, Zima et Ngomedzap). Une enquête d'agriculteurs a été réalisée à grande échelle (1 171 exploitations regroupant 1 638 cacaoyères), complétée par des observations spécifiques réalisées dans un réseau de 61 cacaoyères exploitées par 40 agriculteurs. Résultats. (1) Nos résultats d'enquête, complétés par des observations spécifiques, ont confirmé la durabilité des systèmes agroforestiers à base de cacaoyer aux plans agro-écologique et socio-économique. (2) Dans la zone de transition forêt-savane, considérée comme sub-optimale pour la cacaoculture, nous avons montré que le modèle technique adopté par les agriculteurs leur permet d'installer sur savane des cacaoyères viables sur le long terme. (3) Une méthode participative de quantification de la valeur d'usage des espèces par les agriculteurs, appliquée sur le réseau d'observation, a confirmé la multifonctionnalité des systèmes agroforestiers et mesuré la place qu'y occupe la composante cacaoyère. (4) L'évaluation des peuplements cacaoyers, réalisée en adaptant la méthode de diagnostic agronomique régional aux systèmes complexes, a permis d'identifier les facteurs limitant le rendement en cacao marchand. Celui-ci s'avère étroitement lié à la structure des peuplements cacaoyers et à celle des peuplements associés. (5) Enfin, l'analyse compréhensive des pratiques des agriculteurs sur le long terme, en lien avec l'évolution technique des peuplements cacaoyers a confirmé la flexibilité des systèmes agroforestiers à base de cacaoyer. Cette flexibilité peut être traduite par des trajectoires d'évolution des pratiques et des trajectoires de structures spécifiques. Ce travail fournit une nouvelle base méthodologique pour l'analyse et l'évaluation des systèmes agroforestiers complexes. L'ensemble des résultats et des connaissances produites dans ce travail permet de formuler des propositions pour la mise au point d'un nouveau modèle technique en cacaoculture. / Cocoa cultivation is generally considered as one of the main deforestation factors in the Tropics. Indeed, in many countries it is based on a low-sustainability technical model of intensive monocrops with shifting production zones. Cocoa agroforests, which are often neglected by research due to their low fermented dried cocoa yields, now appear to be a credible alternative for taking up the new challenges facing world cocoa production. In Centre-South Cameroon, cocoa cultivation is largely based on old cocoa agroforests, which suggests that a sustainable cocoa growing model based on agroforestry systems is possible. Our aim was to more effectively understand how these cocoa agroforests function, through their characteristics, their evolution and their determinants, along with the conditions for their long-term fermented dried cocoa production. Our approach consisted of an evaluation of cocoa agroforests on a plot scale and a comprehensive analysis of technical practices over the long term. The thesis is based on an experimental design set up in the Centre region, in three growing zones that could be differentiated through their pedo climatic conditions (Bokito, Zima and Ngomedzap). A large-scale survey was undertaken (1,171 farms grouping 1,638 cocoa plantations) completed by specific observations collected in a network of 61 cocoa agroforests managed by 40 farmers. Results. (1) Our survey results, completed by specific observations, confirmed the sustainability of the cocoa agroforestry systems from an agro ecological and socio-economic viewpoint. (2) In the forest-savannah transition zone, which is considered sub-optimum for cocoa cultivation, we confirmed that the technical model adopted by the farmers enabled them to set up cocoa agroforests on savannah that were viable over the long term. (3) In the network, a participatory method applied to quantify the use value given to the species by the farmers confirmed the multi-functionality of cocoa agroforests and measured the place occupied in it by cocoa. (4) The evaluation of the cocoa tree stands, achieved by adapting the regional agronomic diagnosis method to complex systems, revealed the factors limiting cocoa yield. It was proved that cocoa yield is closely linked to the structure of the cocoa tree stand and that of the intercropped stands. (5) Lastly, a comprehensive analysis of farmer practices over the long term, in association with the evolution of the technical management of the cocoa tree stands, confirmed the flexibility of cocoa agroforestry systems. This flexibility was reflected in the evolution pathways for specific practices and structures. This work provides a new methodological basis to assess the performance of complex agroforestry systems. All the results and knowledge produced by this work make it possible to draw up proposals for developing a new technical model for cocoa growing.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Maryland, College Park, 1986. / Includes bibliographical references.

Le document résume les activités administratives, de recherche, et d'enseignement de l'auteure, de 1998 à 2009. Les activités de recherche concernent l'étude de l'interaction cacao-Moniliophthora perniciosa; activités développées de 2002 à 2009 dans le cadre d'une collaboration Cirad (France) - Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz (Ilhéus, Brésil).

Abstract of Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Wisconsin, 1970.