No description available.

Transient vehicle thermal management simulations have the potential to be an important tool to ensure long component lifetimes in heavy-duty vehicles, as well as save development costs by reducing development time. Time-resolved computational fluid dynamics simulations of complete vehicles are however typically very computationally expensive, and approximation methods must be employed to keep computational costs and turn-around times at a reasonable level. In this thesis, two transient methods are used to simulate two important time-dependent scenarios for complete vehicles; hot shutdowns and long dynamic drive cycles. An approach using a time scaling between fluid solver and thermal solver is evaluated for a short drive cycle and heat soak. A quasi-transient method, utilizing limited steady-state computational fluid dynamics data repeatedly, is used for a long drive cycle. The simulation results are validated and compared with measurements from a climatic wind tunnel. The results indicate that the time-scaling approach is appropriate when boundary conditions are not changing rapidly. Heat-soak simulations show reasonable agreement between three cases with different thermal scale factors. The quasi-transient simulations suggest that complete vehicle simulations for durations of more than one hour are feasible. The quasi-transient results partly agree with measurements, although more component temperature measurements are required to fully validate the method.

Environmental concerns, resource depletion, energy security, technological advancements, and global policies are just a few of the variables influencing the global energy perspective. In the case of technological advancement, lithium batteries play a key role in the development of a more sustainable energy infrastructure. The high energy density and long lifespan of lithium batteries make them ideal for usage in a broad range of applications, such as portable electronics, electric vehicles, and grid-scale energy storage for renewable energy sources. However, there are certain possible concerns regarding the safe operation and performance of lithium batteries, most of which are associated with the temperature sensitivity of lithium batteries. Hence, battery thermal management systems are an essential component of a battery package for regulating the temperature level in lithium batteries to avoid the aging process, poor performance, and safety issues.   Many studies have been conducted to develop battery thermal management systems with improved cooling performance. Within this framework, Paper A in this licentiate thesis considers how the design of a lithium battery cell may be improved to reduce the thermal load on the thermal management system. An analytical model based on the integral transform technique is developed to accurately and efficiently predict the thermal behavior of a cylindrical lithium battery cell. Following model validation, the thermal behavior of cylindrical lithium-ion battery cells with different jelly-roll layers and can sizes are compared. The results demonstrate that 21700 cylindrical battery cells outperform other types of cylindrical battery cells in terms of thermal performance. Furthermore, the thermally optimal thicknesses for positive active material, negative active material, positive current collector, and negative current collector are 180, 34, 21, and 20 um, respectively. After learning about design considerations to reduce thermal issues in lithium-ion battery cells and developing a proper tool for further studies, the focus was set on the flow behavior surrounding a cylindrical battery cell in an air-based cooling system. The cooling system under consideration is a wall-bounded cross-flow heat exchanger, the most common air-based cooling system for battery applications. Despite the importance of the cooling system in battery safety, few studies have been conducted to investigate the thermo-flow characteristics of wall-bounded cross-flow heat exchangers. Hence, in the battery research field, it is common to estimate the performance of wall-bounded cross-flow heat exchangers using the thermal characteristics of free cross-flow heat exchangers due to their geometrical similarities. In Paper B, this assumption is scrutinized by comparing the thermo-fluid characteristics of free and wall-bounded cross-flow heat exchangers. According to the results, flow through both heat exchangers shows almost similar thermo-fluid behavior in areas sufficiently far from the bounding walls. A turbulence model study suggests that the k-kl-omega transition model is a time-efficient and reliable turbulence model for capturing thermo-fluid characteristics in such heat exchangers. Moreover, it is observed that the two different heat exchangers have an almost identical area-averaged heat transfer rate despite the local changes in Nusselt number along the height of cells. This finding shows that it is possible to do two-dimensional simulations for applications that only require an area-averaged heat transfer rate on the battery cells. The findings in Paper A and Paper B may be used to investigate the cooling performance of a battery thermal management system with a practical design. Hence, in Paper C, a comprehensive yet simplified model is developed that can be used to study the thermal field of lithium battery cells in a large-scale air-based battery thermal management system. The model consists of the CFD model derived in Paper B, which predicts the flow behavior around cells in the inner region of the battery package, and the analytical model described in Paper A, which determines the thermal field within the battery cells. The area-averaged heat transfer coefficient interconnects the models, and a system of equations is employed to estimate the row-to-row variation of the thermal field. The model is employed to assess the effect of transverse and longitudinal pitch ratios on the thermal performance of an air-based battery thermal management system used in a hybrid electric vehicle.

No description available.

No description available.

<p>The present study investigates the capability of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) extensively to predict hydrodynamics and heat transfer characteristics of FC-72 flow boiling in a 2.5-mm ´ 5.0-mm rectangular channel and experimentally explores system instabilities: <em>density wave oscillation</em> (DWO), <em>pressure drop oscillation</em> (PDO) and <em>parallel channel instability</em> (PCI) in a micro-channel heat sink containing 38 parallel channels having a hydraulic diameter of 316-μm. </p> <p>The computational method performs transient analysis to model the entire flow field and bubble behavior for subcooled flow boiling in a rectangular channel heated on two opposite walls at high heat flux conditions of about 40% – 80% of <em>critical heat flux</em> (CHF).  The 3D CFD solver is constructed in ANSYS Fluent in which the <em>volume of fluid</em> (VOF) model is combined with a <em>shear stress transport</em> (SST) <em>k</em>-<em>ω</em> turbulent model, a surface tension model, and interfacial phase change model, along with a model for effects of shear-lift and bubble collision dispersion to overcome a fundamental weakness in modeling multiphase flows.  Detailed information about bubble distribution in the vicinity of the heated surface, thermal conduction inside the heating wall, local heat fluxes passing through the solid-fluid interface, and velocity and temperature profiles, which are not easily observed or measured by experiments, is carefully evaluated.  The simulation results are compared to experimental data to validate the solver’s ability to predict the flow configuration with single/double-side heating.  The added momentum by shear-lift is shown to govern primarily the dynamic behavior of tiny bubbles stuck on the heated bottom wall and therefore has a more significant impact on both heat transfer and heated wall temperature.  By including bubble collision dispersion force, coalescence of densely packed bubbles in the bulk region is significantly inhibited, with more giant bubbles even incurring additional breakup into smaller bubbles and culminating in far less vapor accumulation along the top wall.  Including these momentums is shown to yield better agreement with local interfacial behavior along the channel, overall flow pattern, and heat transfer parameters (wall temperature and heat transfer coefficient) observed and measured in experiments.  The computational approach is also shown to be highly effective at predicting local phenomena (velocity and temperature profiles) not easily determined through experiments.  Different flow regimes predicted along the heated length exhibit a number of dominant mechanisms, including bubble nucleation, bubble growth, coalescence, vapor blankets, interfacial waviness, and residual liquid sub-layer, all of which agree well with the experiment.  Vapor velocity is shown to increase appreciably along the heated length because of increased void fraction, while liquid velocity experiences large fluctuations.  Non-equilibrium effects are accentuated with increasing mass velocity, contributing minor deviations of fluid temperature from simulations compared to those predicted by the analytical method.  Predicted wall temperature is reasonably uniform in the middle of the heated length but increases in the entrance region due to sensible heat transfer in the subcooled liquid and decreases toward the exit, primarily because of flow acceleration resulting from increased void fraction.  When it comes to analyzing heat transfer mechanisms at extremely high heat flux via CFD, predicted flow pattern, bubble behavior, and heat transfer parameters (such as wall temperature excursion and thermal energy concentration) clearly represent phenomena of premature CHF, which take place slightly earlier than actual operating conditions.  But, despite these slight differences, the present computational work does demonstrate the ability to effectively predict the severe degradation in heat transfer performance commonly encountered at heat fluxes nearing CHF.  </p> <p>Much of the published literature addressing flow instabilities in thermal management systems employing micro-channel modules are focused on instability characteristics of the module alone, and far fewer studies have aimed at understanding the relationship between these characteristics and compressive volume in the flow loop external to the module.  From a practical point of view, developers of micro-channel thermal management systems for many modern applications are in pursuit of practical remedies that would significantly mitigate instabilities and their impact on cooling performance.  Experiments are executed using FC-72 as a working fluid with a wide range of mass velocities and a reasonably constant inlet subcooling of ~15°C.  The flow instabilities are reflected in pressure fluctuations detected mainly in the heat sink’s upstream plenum.  Both inlet pressure and pressure drop signals are analyzed in pursuit of amplitude and frequency characteristics for different mass velocities and over a range of heat fluxes.  The current experimental study also examines the effects of compressible volume location in a closed pump-driven flow loop designed to deliver FC-72 to a micro-channel test module having 38 channels with 315-μm hydraulic diameter.  Three accumulator locations are investigated: upstream of the test module, downstream of the test module, and between the condenser and pump.  Both high-frequency temporal parameter data and high-speed video records are analyzed for ranges of mass velocity and heat flux, with inlet subcooling held constant at ~15°C.  PDO is shown to dominate when the accumulator is situated upstream, whereas PCI is dominant for the other two locations.  Appreciable confinement of bubbles in individual channels is shown to promote rapid axial bubble growth.  The study shows significant variations in the amount of vapor generated and dominant flow patterns among channels, a clear manifestation of PCI, especially for low mass velocities and high heat fluxes.  It is also shown effects of the heat sink’s instabilities are felt in other components of the flow loop.  The parametric trends for PCI are investigated with the aid of three different types of stability maps which show different abilities at demarcating stable and unstable operations.  PDO shows severe pressure oscillations across the micro-channel heat sink, with rapid bubble growth and confinement, elongated bubble expansion in both directions, flow stagnation, and flow reversal (including vapor backflow to the inlet plenum) constituting the principal sequence of events characterizing the instability.  Spectral analysis of pressure signals is performed using Fast Fourier Transform, which shows PDO extending the inlet pressure fluctuations with the same dominant frequency to other upstream flow loop components, with higher amplitudes closer to the pump exit.  From a practical system operation point of view, throttling the flow upstream of the heat sink eliminates PDO but renders PCI dominant, and placing the accumulator in the liquid flow segment of the loop between the condenser and pump ensures the most stable operation.</p>

[ES] Actualmente, los vehículos propulsados por motores de combustión interna alternativos (MCIA) constituyen uno de los mayores agentes contaminantes para el medio ambiente. En este sentido, ha existido una importante cooperación internacional para promulgar leyes que regulen las emisiones contaminantes. De manera que los fabricantes de coches han impulsado el desarrollo de tecnologías más limpias y amigables con el medio ambiente. Ante esta situación, ha surgido recientemente la electrificación, como uno de los proyectos más ambiciosos de la industria automotriz para los próximos años. Sin embargo, esta meta parece aún lejana en el horizonte. En tal sentido, la hibridación con motores térmicos y eléctricos parece ser el camino a seguir en el corto plazo. Por consiguiente, los MCIA seguirán siendo la principal fuente de propulsión terrestre durante los años venideros. Para mitigar los inherentes efectos contaminantes de los motores de combustión interna, se han propuesto diferentes tecnologías para desarrollar motores más eficientes. Entre ellas, la aplicación de recubrimientos térmicos en las paredes de la cámara de combustión apunta a reducir las pérdidas por calor en el motor, y así aumentar su eficiencia térmica. El objetivo principal de esta tesis es estudiar el impacto de aplicar recubrimientos térmicos en las paredes de la cámara de combustión en motores de combustión interna. En este sentido, determinar los flujos de calor experimentalmente a través de las paredes es complicado y no del todo fiables, debido a que dependen de la medición de las temperaturas de pared. Por este motivo, el CFD-CHT es utilizado. El primer paso fue validar la herramienta computacional que es utilizada para los cálculos en motores de combustión interna. Para ello se realizó un estudio preliminar en geometrías sencillas como una tubería circular o un canal rectangular. Se evaluaron los modelos de transferencia de calor y se determinó la relevancia de ciertos parámetros como la rugosidad. Para complementar el estudio, se realizó un análisis de las temperaturas en una geometría más realista como el pistón de un MCIA. Los valores de temperatura calculados por el software fueron casi iguales a las medidas experimentales. Por consiguiente, la fiabilidad de la herramienta computacional fue verificada. Seguidamente, se plantea una metodología para abordar al problema de modelar capas muy finas de recubrimientos térmicos en el espacio tridimensional. Para de esta manera poder simular las paredes recubiertas en la cámara de combustión. La metodología consiste en definir un material equivalente con un espesor y número de nodos que permitan un mallado computacionalmente realista. Para ello se utilizó un DoE en combinación con un análisis de regresión múltiple. Los primeros estudios se llevaron a cabo en un motor de gasolina. El modelado se llevó a cabo para dos configuraciones: motor con paredes metálicas y motor con pistón y culata recubiertos. A través de un análisis exhaustivo de la transferencia del calor, se evaluó el impacto que tenía aplicar el revestimiento térmico en el motor. La comparación con datos experimentales demuestran la utilidad del cálculo CHT para evaluar las pérdidas de calor en un MCIA. Sin embargo, ninguna mejora fue observada en el motor de gasolina debido al tipo de recubrimiento aplicado en las paredes de la cámara de combustión. Las simulaciones llevadas a cabo en el motor de gasolina permitieron determinar que los cálculos CHT son computacionalmente largos. En este sentido, una serie de estrategias diseñadas a optimizar los cálculos han sido analizadas con el fin de reducir los tiempos de cálculo. A través de este estudio, se encontró una metodología para optimizar la malla del dominio computacional. Esta última, emplea un refinamiento AMR basado en la distancia de pared. Este método es utilizado para modelar el impacto de aplicar un revestimiento tér / [CA] Actualment, els vehicles propulsats per motors de combustió interna alter- natius (MCIA) constitueixen un dels majors agents contaminants per al medi ambient. En aquest sentit, ha existit una important cooperació internacional per a promulgar lleis que regulen les emissions contaminants. De manera que els fabricants de cotxes han impulsat el desenvolupament de tecnologies més netes i amigables amb el medi ambient. Davant aquesta situació, ha sorgit recentment l'electrificació, com un dels projectes més ambiciosos de la indústria automotriu per als pròxims anys. No obstant això, aquesta meta sembla encara llunyana en l'horitzó. En tal sentit, la hibridació amb motors tèrmics i elèctrics sembla ser el camí a seguir en el curt termini. Per consegüent, els MCIA continuaran sent la principal font de propulsió terrestre durant els anys esdevenidors. Per a mitigar els inherents efectes contaminants dels motors de combustió interna, s'han proposat diferents tecnologies per a desenvolupar motors més eficients. Entre elles, l'aplicació de recobriments tèrmics en les parets de la cambra de combustió apunta a reduir les pèrdues per calor en el motor, i així augmentar la seua eficiència tèrmica. L'objectiu principal d'aquesta tesi és estudiar l'impacte d'aplicar reco- briments tèrmics en les parets de la cambra de combustió en motors de combustió interna. En aquest sentit, determinar els fluxos de calor experi- mentalment a través de les parets és complicat i no del tot fiable, pel fet que depenen del mesurament de les temperatures de paret. Per aquest motiu, el CFD-CHT (Computational fluid dynamics-Conjugate Heat Transfer) és utilitzat. El primer pas va ser validar l'eina computacional que és utilitzada per als càlculs en motors de combustió interna. Per a això es va realitzar un estudi preliminar en geometries senzilles com una canonada circular o un canal rectangular. Es van avaluar els models de transferència de calor i es va determinar la rellevància de certs paràmetres com la rugositat. Per a complementar l'estudi, es va realitzar una anàlisi de les temperatures en una geometria més realista com el pistó d'un MCIA. Els valors de temperatura calculats pel software van ser quasi iguals a les mesures experimentals. Per consegüent, la fiabilitat de l'eina computacional va ser verificada. Seguidament, es planteja una metodologia per a abordar el problema de modelar capes molt fines de recobriments tèrmics en l'espai tridimensional, per a d'aquesta manera poder simular les parets recobertes en la cambra de combustió. La metodologia consisteix a definir un material equivalent amb una grossària i nombre de nodes que permeten un mallat computacionalment realista. Per a això es va utilitzar un DoE (Design of experiments) en combinació amb una anàlisi de regressió múltiple. Els primers estudis es van dur a terme en un motor de gasolina. El mod- elatge es va dur a terme per a dues configuracions: motor amb parets metàl·liques i motor amb pistó i culata recoberts. A través d'una anàlisi exhaustiva de la transferència de la calor, es va avaluar l'impacte que tenia aplicar el revestiment tèrmic en el motor. La comparació amb dades experi- mentals demostren la utilitat del càlcul CHT per a avaluar les pèrdues de calor en un MCIA. No obstant això, cap millora va ser observada en el motor de gasolina a causa de la mena de recobriment aplicada en les parets de la cambra de combustió. Les simulacions dutes a terme en el motor de gasolina van permetre determinar que els càlculs CHT són computacionalment llargs. En aquest sentit, una sèrie d'estratègies dissenyades per a optimitzar els càlculs han sigut analitzades amb la finalitat de reduir els temps de càlcul. A través d'aquest estudi, es va trobar una metodologia per a optimitzar la malla del domini computacional. Aquesta última, empra un refinament AMR basat en la distància de paret. / [EN] Currently, vehicles powered by internal combustion engines (ICE) are targeted as contributing largely to environmental pollution. In this regard, there has been significant international cooperation to enact laws that regulate the polluting emissions. Hence, the car manufacturers have oriented efforts to the development of cleaner and more eco-friendly technologies. In order to face this situation, electrified vehicles have emerged as one of the most promising projects in the automotive industry for the coming years. However, this target still seems far on the horizon. In this sense, hybridization with thermal and electric engines seems to be the path to follow in the short term. Consequently, ICEs will continue to be one of the important sources of terrestrial propulsion in the coming years. To mitigate the inherent polluting effects of internal combustion engines, different technologies have been proposed to develop more efficient engines. Among them, the application of thermal coatings on the combustion chamber walls. This technology aims at reducing the heat losses in the engine, and thus increase its thermal efficiency. The main objective of this thesis is to study the impact of coating the combustion chamber walls of an engine on heat losses and thermal efficiency. The experimental definition of the heat fluxes through the walls is complex and not very reliable because it requires the measurement of wall temperatures. For this reason, CFD-CHT (Computational fluid dynamics-Conjugate Heat Transfer) is used. The first step was to validate the computational tool employed for CFD-CHT calculations in internal combustion engines. For this, a preliminary study in simple geometries such as a circular pipe or a rectangular channel was performed. Heat transfer models were evaluated and the relevance of certain parameters such as roughness was determined. To reinforce the study, a thermal analysis in a more realistic geometry such as the piston of a CI engine was carried out. The temperature values calculated by the software were almost the same as the experimental measurements. Consequently, the reliability of the computational tool was verified. Next, a methodology was proposed to address the problem of modeling very thin layers of thermal coating for three-dimensional CFD-CHT calculations. The methodology consists in defining an "equivalent material" with a thickness and number of nodes that allow a computationally realistic mesh. For this, a DoE in combination with a multiple regression analysis was employed. The first CFD-CHT simulations in ICEs were carried out for a gasoline engine. The study was performed for two configurations: metallic engine and engine with coated piston and cylinder head. An exhaustive heat transfer analysis was made in order to determine the impact of applying the thermal coating on the engine. Comparison with experimental data proved the suitability of the CHT calculations to evaluate heat losses in ICEs. However, no improvement on engine efficiency was observed in the gasoline engine due to the type of coating applied on the combustion chamber walls. Experience with the gasoline engine calculations showed that CHT calculations were very time consuming. In this regard, some strategies aimed at optimizing the calculations were analyzed in order to reduce calculation times. The most successful methodology was based on AMR cell refinement to optimize the mesh and reduce significantly the computational costs. This approach was used to study the impact of applying a new generation thermal coating on the piston top of a Diesel engine. The results obtained indicated that this type of coating allows for some improvement in the thermal efficiency of the engine without affecting its performance. / The author wishes to acknowledge the financial support received through contract FPI-2018-S2-1205 of the Programa para la Formación de Personal investigador (FPI) 2018 of Universitat Politècnica de València. Parts of the work presented in this thesis have received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme undergrant agreement No 724084.The author wishes to thank IFPEN for their permission to use their single cylinder engine geometry and experimental results, as well as Saint Gobain Research Provence for providing the coating characteristics.The respondent wants to express its gratitude to CONVERGENT SCIENCE Inc. and Convergent Science GmbH for their kind support for performingthe CFD-CHT calculations using CONVERGE software / Escalona Cornejo, JE. (2021). Modelling of Heat Losses through Coated Cylinder Walls and their Impact on Engine Performance [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/165244

<p dir="ltr">With increasing power densities in electronic devices, effective thermal management has become an indispensable aspect of electronic systems design. Although phase change materials (PCMs) have been studied as a potential solution, their integration into microelectronic and high-power devices presents a significant challenge due to low thermal conductivity and lack of effective thermal pathways from the heat source to the heat sink. While much work has focused on integrating thermal storage into heat sinks, this dissertation instead investigates integrating PCMs between the heat source and the heat sink in different configurations. By placing the energy storage closer to the heat source, the thermal resistance is reduced, which improves the overall thermal performance of the device. Specifically, this work explores the efficacy of two approaches: (1) direct embedding of a PCM within the die for mobile electronics applications and (2) integration of an auxiliary composite PCM/copper thermal energy storage (TES) component in combination with active liquid cooling for high-power power electronics modules.</p><p><br></p><p dir="ltr">The first study explores die-level thermal management for microelectronics using PCMs. Silicon chips with PCM embedded within the die are modeled using ParaPower, a fast-analysis tool, and a genetic algorithm is used to efficiently optimize the distribution of high-conductivity silicon pathways and high thermal capacitance PCM zones. A thermal test vehicle (TTV) of a realistic microelectronics form factor with an embedded PCM layer is first designed, and a process is developed to fabricate such a TTV. This study is the first to successfully fabricate a TTV with fully encapsulated PCM and validate its thermal response across various operational scenarios. For temperature cycling tests (where the TTV temperature fluctuates between predetermined hot and cold setpoints), the embedded-PCM TTVs extend the operational time by up to 2.8x compared to a baseline all-silicon TTV. For duty cycling tests (with a fixed duration of the periodic heating pulses and off times), the embedded-PCM TTVs suppress the hotspot temperature rise by up to 14% and stabilize quasi-steady state temperature fluctuations by up to 65% through repeated PCM melting and solidification cycles. Thermal performance enhancements are observed even for high heat fluxes of ~65W/cm² . Specifically, a TTV with an embedded square-shaped PCM reservoir reduces temperature instability by an average of 40% across a range of cycle durations.</p><p><br></p><p dir="ltr">The second study investigates the effectiveness of different integration strategies for an auxiliary composite PCM/copper TES block integrated alongside a cold plate, for thermal management of high-power power electronics modules, specifically for electric vehicles. These systems are evaluated for realistic drive cycles of various driving intensities. Computational results indicate that this approach is most effective when the composite TES block is positioned directly above the heat-generating silicon carbide dies. This configuration excels at stabilizing transient temperature fluctuations and absorbing thermal shocks, achieving reductions of up to approximately ~33% compared to current thermal management techniques. This strategy is particularly effective for stop-and-go drive cycles characterized by high rates of acceleration and deceleration, low average driving speeds, and frequent stops, typical of driving schedules for public transport buses and mail delivery vehicles.</p><p><br></p><p dir="ltr">The results from both thermal management approaches demonstrate that the integration of a PCM cooling solution in close proximity to the heat source can significantly enhance its effectiveness by absorbing power bursts and limiting temperature instability via repeated melting and solidification. The contributions of this dissertation include the development of an effective optimization strategy for generating optimized PCM distributions, which reduces the maximum temperature and temperature oscillations in a device with significant computational efficiency. (The same optimization strategy can be applied to other thermal management design challenges.) Notably, TTVs of realistic microelectronics form factors with embedded PCM were designed, modeled, fabricated, and validated. With the PCM thermal buffers, the engineered solution demonstrated superior performance compared to a baseline all-silicon TTV. The second study into the integration of composite PCM/copper TES blocks into high-power power electronics modules established trade-offs between different architectures across various performance metrics, and highlighted its effectiveness for drive cycles with varying intensities. These findings offer an important contribution to the development of embedded thermal management techniques for electronic systems design, which will be critical for the advancement of next-generation microelectronics and high-power devices.</p>

<p dir="ltr"><i>The high heat fluxes generated in electronic devices must be effectively diffused through </i><i>the semiconductor substrate and packaging layers to avoid local, high-temperature “hotspots” </i><i>that govern long-term device reliability. In particular, advanced semiconductor packaging </i><i>trends toward thin form factor products increase the need for understanding and improving </i><i>in-plane conduction heat spreading in anisotropic materials. Furthermore, predicting thermal </i><i>transport in vertical stacks of thinned and bonded die hinges on accurately characterizing </i><i>unknown buried interfacial thermal resistances. The design of semiconductor thermal packaging </i><i>solutions is hence limited by the functionality and accuracy of metrology available </i><i>for thermal properties characterization of engineered anisotropic heat spreading materials </i><i>and buried interfaces. This work focuses on the development of two separate innovative </i><i>metrology techniques for characterizing in-plane thermal properties of both isotropic and </i><i>anisotropic materials, and the measurement of low thermal interfacial resistances embedded </i><i>in stacks of semiconductor substrates.</i></p><p dir="ltr"><i>In the first portion of this thesis, a new measurement technique is developed for characterizing </i><i>the isotropic and anisotropic in-plane thermal properties of thin films and sheets, </i><i>as an extension of the traditional Ångstrom method and other lock-in thermography techniques. </i><i>The measurement leverages non-contact infrared temperature mapping to quantify </i><i>the thermal response to laser-based periodic heating at the center of a suspended thin film </i><i>sample. This novel data extraction method does not require precise knowledge of the boundary </i><i>conditions. To validate the accuracy of this technique, numerical models are developed </i><i>to generate transient temperature profiles for hypothetical anisotropic materials with known </i><i>properties. The resultant temperature profiles are processed through a fitting algorithm to </i><i>extract the in-plane thermal conductivities, without the knowledge of the input properties </i><i>to the forward model. Across a wide range of in-plane thermal conductivities, these results </i><i>agree well with the input values. The limits of accuracy of this technique are identified based </i><i>on the experimental and sample parameters. Further, numerical simulations demonstrate </i><i>the accuracy of this technique for materials with thermal conductivities from 0.1 to 1000 W </i><i>m</i><i>−1 </i><i>K</i><i>−1</i><i>, and material thicknesses ranging from 0.1 to 10 mm. This technique effectively</i> <i>measures anisotropy ratios up to 1000:1. Data from multiple heating frequencies can be </i><i>combined to fit for a single set of thermal properties (independent of frequency), which improves </i><i>measurement sensitivity as the thermal penetration depth varies across frequencies. </i><i>The post-processing algorithm filters out regions within the laser absorber and heat sink to </i><i>eliminate regions in the sample domain with boundary effects. Based on these guidelines, </i><i>experiments demonstrate the accuracy of this measurement technique for a wide range of </i><i>known isotropic and anisotropic heat spreading materials across a thermal conductivity range </i><i>of 0.3 to 700 W m</i><i>−1 </i><i>K</i><i>−1</i><i>, and in-plane anisotropy ratios of 30:1. These steps contribute </i><i>towards standardization of this measurement technique, enabling the development and characterization </i><i>of engineered heat spreading materials with desired anisotropic properties for </i><i>various applications.</i></p><p dir="ltr"><i>The second portion of this thesis focuses on characterization of thermal resistances across </i><i>“buried” interfaces that are challenging to characterize in situ due to their low relative magnitude </i><i>and embedded depth within a material stack. In particular, we target characterization </i><i>of interfaces that are buried deeper than the thermal penetration depth of available transient </i><i>measurement techniques, such as thermoreflectance, but have low thermal resistances </i><i>that prohibit the use of steady-state techniques, such as the reference bar method, due to </i><i>the very high temperature gradients that would be necessary resolve the resistances, among </i><i>other sample preparation challenges. This work develops a technique for the non-destructive </i><i>characterization of such deeply buried interfaces having thermal contact resistances of the </i><i>order of 0.001 cm</i><i>2</i><i>K/W. Two different embodiments of the measurement approach are first </i><i>assessed before down-selecting to a single experimental implementation. The working principle </i><i>for both embodiments includes a combination of non-contact periodic heating and </i><i>thermal sensing to measure the transient temperature response of a two-layer stack of materials </i><i>with a bonded interface of unknown thermal resistance. The approaches aim to </i><i>eliminate the preparation requirement of cutting samples to investigate their temperature in </i><i>cross-section. In the first embodiment, the sample stack is heated periodically at the center </i><i>of the sample, and cooled at the periphery, to create a radial temperature gradient. The </i><i>second embodiment involves generating a one-dimensional temperature gradient across the </i><i>stack by periodic heating of one face and steady cooling of the other face. The corresponding </i><i>ing amplitude and phase delay of the temperature responses are used to fit for the thermal </i><i>interfacial resistance, assuming a time-periodic solution for the heat diffusion equation for </i><i>a system with periodic heating. Numerical models developed for both approaches simulate </i><i>the transient temperature profiles across a two-layer bonded silicon stack of known thermal </i><i>properties, and enable an assessment of both approaches. The one-dimensional (1D) gradient </i><i>approach is found to have higher sensitivity and measurable signal compared to the </i><i>radial spreading approach, at the same mean temperature of the sample. </i></p><p dir="ltr"><i>Based on this 1D gradient concept, an experimental facility is developed, which includes </i><i>a IR-transparent heat sink, laser-based heating, and two IR temperature sensors for noncontact </i><i>temperature measurement of both sides of the sample. The unique IR transparent </i><i>heat sink design allows for simultaneous cooling and non-contact temperature measurement </i><i>of the bottom surface of the sample. An inverse fitting method is developed to extract </i><i>the thermal resistances using the steady periodic temperature amplitude and phase delay </i><i>across the thickness of the material. Thermal data generated using numerical simulations, </i><i>along with the data fitting method, is first leveraged to validate the extracted thermal resistance </i><i>values for two-layer material systems with an bonded interface, as well as for the </i><i>thermal conductivity measurement of bulk materials without an interface. The data extraction </i><i>process is shown to accurately extract thermal contact resistances on the order of </i><i>0.0001 cm</i><i>2</i><i>K/W in silicon-based packages for interfaces that are a few millimeters from the </i><i>exposed surface. For bulk materials, this technique demonstrates accuracy in extracting </i><i>the thermal conductivity of a wide range of materials ranging from thermal insulators to </i><i>highly conductive materials, spanning a range of 0.1 to 2000 W m</i><i>−1 </i><i>K</i><i>−1</i><i>. Physical measurements </i><i>of thermal conductivity of bulk silicon nitride and zinc oxide agree well with expected </i><i>reference values, and these measurements also align well with data from independently performed </i><i>experiments on the same materials using an established ASTM D5470 standard, </i><i>thereby validating this new measurement technique experimentally. Two-layer dry-contact </i><i>stacks of these two materials demonstrate the extraction of the thermal resistance across </i><i>interfaces buried up to 2 mm from the exposed surface. This work contributes toward standardization </i><i>of this technique for measurement of thermal resistances with low magnitudes </i><i>and buried depths, which are commonly found in modern electronic packages, ranging from </i><i>near-junction epitaxial semiconductor films to interconnect layers in emerging die-to-die and </i><i>wafer hybrid bonding technologies.</i></p><p dir="ltr"><i>Ultimately, these measurement techniques of in-plane thermal conductivity measurement </i><i>of anisotropic materials and the interfacial contact resistance measurements across buried </i><i>interfaces offer an important contribution to the area of thermal metrology, and advance the </i><i>field of next-generation semiconductor packaging.</i></p>

Effective heat management is essential for preserving performance and dependability as electronic equipment becomes increasingly powerful and smaller. This project presents the developed system, TeRMeS, which was created to test the thermal resistance of thermal interface materials (TIMs) essential for the thermal management of electronic devices, including battery systems. This work focuses on using steady-state techniques to evaluate TIMs under various operational forces and temperatures in real-world electronic packaging conditions. A noteworthy breakthrough is the creation of a user-friendly graphical user interface (GUI), which offers sophisticated options for real-time thickness measurement and enables researchers to alter parameters and dynamically display outcomes, thereby improving the measuring process. The results of the experiment highlight the importance of TIM thickness and applied force in lowering thermal resistance and increasing thermal conductivity. These elements are necessary to prevent battery packs and electrical parts from overheating. To improve heat management strategies in high-performance computing and electronics, the study provides accurate, reliable data by focusing on steady-state measurements.