Este trabalho teve como objetivo a montagem de um sistema de otimização de pulsos ultracurtos (oscilador laser modelocked de 15 fs), através de uma técnica de formatação de pulsos via absorção de dois fótons em compostos orgânicos. Está técnica utiliza uma estratégia evolucionária baseada em um algoritmo genético, onde se controla o formato do pulso pela deformação imposta a um espelho deformável, conjuntamente com o monitoramento de um sinal de realimentação. Desta forma, este sistema permite tanto a otimização do processo de absorção de dois fótons, quanto a otimização do próprio pulso do sistema laser. Após a montagem inicial do sistema de formatação de pulsos, foram implementados três métodos de otimização via monitoramento do processo de absorção de dois fótons, sendo que dois deles foram desenvolvidos nesta dissertação. Os métodos diferem entre si pelo emprego de distintos sinais de realimentação para o processo de otimização: (i) intensidade da fluorescência excitada por dois fótons; (ii) variação da transmitância não linear dos compostos orgânicos devido à absorção de dois fótons; e (iii) intensidade do efeito de lente térmica apresentada pelos compostos orgânicos após a absorção de dois fótons. Os três métodos de otimização apresentaram resultados similares e satisfatórios, aproximando a largura temporal do pulso ao final do processo de otimização da largura temporal dada pelo limite da transformada de Fourier, medidas através de técnicas de autocorrelação. Estes resultados apontam para a validade do uso dos métodos por nós desenvolvidos como alternativas para processos de otimização de pulsos ultracurtos. / In this work it is described the implementation of an ultrashort pulse optimization system (15 fs modelocked oscillator) that employs pulse shaping methods via two-photon absorption in organic materials. This technique uses an evolutionary strategy based on a Genetic Algorithm, where the pulse shape is controlled by a deformable mirror, while a feedback signal is monitored. In this way, this system allows both, the two-photon absorption process and pulse optimization. After the accomplishment of the pulse shaping system, we have implemented three distinct optimization methods via two-photon absorption monitoring, being two of them proposed in the present dissertation. These three methods differs from each other by the use of different feedback signals for the optimization process: (i) intensity of the two-photon excited fluorescence; (ii) nonlinear transmittance change in organic compounds due to the two-photon absorption; and (iii) intensity of the thermal lens effect. All optimization methods presented similar and satisfactory results, leading the ultrashort pulse, in the end of the optimization process, close to the Fourier transformed limit. In such cases, the pulse duration were determined through the autocorrelation technique. These results indicates that the new methods proposed here can be used as an alternative for both, pulse optimization and control of two-photon absorption process, specially for nonfluorescent samples.

Este trabalho utilizou pulsos laser ultracurtos para modificar, de forma controlada, as características dimensionais de nanopartículas de prata em solução aquosa. Para atingir este objetivo foram empregados algoritmos genéticos e circuitos microfluídicos. Utilizou-se um conformador temporal de pulsos ultracurtos para criar diversos perfis temporais de pulsos que irradiaram soluções de nanopartículas de prata. Estes perfis temporais foram ajustados em tempo real, visando otimizar o resultado do experimento, quantificada pela diminuição do diâmetro médio das nanopartículas nas soluções irradiadas. Uma vez que cada experimento de minimização do diâmetro das nanopartículas exigiu centenas de medidas, sua realização foi possível em decorrência da utilização de um circuito microfluídico construído especialmente para este trabalho. Neste circuito é possível utilizar pequenas quantidades de amostra, levando a curtos tempos de irradiação e medição, além da evidente economia de amostras. Para a realização deste trabalho foi elaborado e testado um algoritmo genético interfaceado a diversos equipamentos, incluindo um filtro acustóptico dispersivo programável que modifica as características temporais dos pulsos ultracurtos, através da introdução de componentes de fases espectrais nestes pulsos. Utilizando o algoritmo genético e o filtro acustóptico dispersivo programável foram realizados experimentos de encurtamento da duração temporal dos pulsos ultracurtos provenientes do sistema laser, resultando na obtenção de pulsos com durações próximas às limitadas por transformada de Fourier. Além disso, foram realizados experimentos para a otimização do processo evolutivo do algoritmo genético escrito em Labview. Os experimentos de irradiação de soluções de nanopartículas de prata mostraram que, ao conformar a duração dos pulsos utilizados nas irradiações, pôde-se controlar as dimensões destas nanopartículas, diminuindo seu tamanho médio por um fator 2. Esses experimentos caracterizam a irradiação de nanopartículas por lasers de pulsos ultracurtos como uma importante técnica de controle de características de nanopartículas. / This work used ultrashort laser pulses to modify, in a controlled way, the dimensional characteristics of silver nanoparticles in aqueous solution. To reach this goal, genetic algorithm and microfluidic circuits were used. A pulse shaper was used to create different temporal profiles for the ultrashort pulses used to irradiate the silver nanoparticle solutions. These temporal profiles were conformed in real time, aiming to optimize the experiment result, quantified by the decrease of the average diameter of the nanoparticles in the irradiated solutions. Since each nanoparticle diameter minimization experiment demanded hundreds of measurements, its achievement was possible by the use of a microfluidic circuit specially built for this work. This circuit enables the use of small sample quantities, leading to short irradiation and measurement intervals, besides evident sample savings. To make this work possible, a genetic algorithm was created and tested. This genetic algorithm was interfaced to several equipments, including an acustooptic programmable dispersive filter that modifies the ultrashort pulses temporal characteristics by the introduction of spectral phases in the pulses. The genetic algorithm and the acustooptic programmable dispersive filter were used in conjunction in experiments to temporally shorten the ultrashort pulses from the laser system, generating pulses durations close to the Fourier transform limited ones. Besides, experiments were performed with the Labview coded genetic algorithm to optimize its evolutionary process. The silver nanoparticles irradiation experiments showed that the ultrashort pulses temporal conformation allowed the control of these particles dimensions, decreasing its mean size by a factor of 2. These experiments characterize the nanoparticles irradiation by ultrashort pulses as an important technique to control the nanoparticles characteristics.

Arterial diseases such as hypertension, carotid stenosis, and abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) may progress silently without symptoms and contribute to acute cardiovascular events such as heart attack, stroke, and aneurysm rupture, which are consistently among the leading causes of death worldwide. The arterial pulse wave, regarded as one of the fundamental vital signs of clinical medicine, originates from the heart and propagates throughout the arterial tree as a pressure, flow velocity, and wall displacement wave, giving rise to the natural pulsation of the arteries. The dynamic properties of the pulse wave are intimately related to the physical state of the cardiovascular system. Thus, the assessment of the arterial wall dynamics driven by the pulse wave may provide valuable insights into vascular mechanical properties for the early detection and characterization of arterial pathologies. The focus of this dissertation was to develop and clinically implement Pulse Wave Imaging (PWI), an ultrasound elasticity imaging-based method for the visualization and spatio-temporal mapping of the pulse wave propagation at any accessible arterial location. Motion estimation algorithms based on cross-correlation of the ultrasound radio-frequency (RF) signals were used to track the arterial walls and capture the pulse wave-induced displacements over the cardiac cycle. PWI facilitates the image-guided measurement of clinically relevant pulse wave features such as propagation speed (pulse wave velocity, or PWV), uniformity, and morphology as well as derivation of the pulse pressure waveform. A parametric study investigating the performance of PWI in two canine aortas ex vivo and 10 normal, healthy human arteries in vivo established the optimal image acquisition and signal processing parameters for reliable measurement of the PWV and wave propagation uniformity. Using this framework, three separate clinical feasibility studies were conducted in patients diagnosed with hypertension, AAA, and carotid stenosis. In a pilot study comparing hypertensive and aneurysmal abdominal aortas with normal controls, the AAA group exhibited significantly higher PWV and lower wave propagation uniformity. A “teetering” motion upon pulse wave arrival was detected in the smaller aneurysms (< 5 cm in diameter) but not in the larger aneurysms (> 5.5 cm in diameter). While no significant difference in PWV or propagation uniformity was observed between normal and hypertensive aortas, qualitative differences in the pulse wave morphology along the imaged aortic segment may be an indicator of increased wave reflection caused by elevated blood pressure and/or arterial stiffness. Pulse Wave Ultrasound Manometry (PWUM) was introduced as an extension of the PWI method for the derivation of the pulse pressure (PP) waveform in large central arteries. A feasibility study in 5 normotensive, 9 pre-hypertensive, and 5 hypertensive subjects indicated that a significantly higher PP in the hypertensive group was detected in the abdominal aorta by PWUM but not in the peripheral arteries by alternative devices (i.e. a radial applanation tonometer and the brachial sphygmomanometer cuff). A relatively strong positive correlation between aortic PP and both radial and brachial PP was observed in the hypertensive group but not in the normal and pre-hypertensive groups, confirming the notion that PP variation throughout the arterial tree may not be uniform in relatively compliant arteries. The application of PWI in 10 stenotic carotid arteries identified phenomenon such as wave convergence, elevated PWV, and decreased cumulative displacement around and/or within regions of atherosclerotic plaque. Intra-plaque mapping of the PWV and cumulative strain demonstrated the potential to quantitatively differentiate stable (i.e. calcified) and vulnerable (i.e. lipid) plaque components. The lack of correlation between quantitative measurements (PWV, modulus, displacement, and strain) and expected plaque stiffness illuminates to need to consider several physiological and imaging-related factors such as turbulent flow, wave reflection, imaging location, and the applicability of established theoretical models in vivo. PWI presents a highly translational method for visualization of the arterial pulse wave and the image-guided measurement of several clinically relevant pulse wave features. The aforementioned findings collectively demonstrated the potential of PWI to detect, diagnose, and characterize vascular disease based on qualitative and quantitative information about arterial wall dynamics under pathological conditions.

I present several new methods for the characterisation of ultrashort pulses using interferometry. A generalisation of the concatenation algorithm for spectral shearing interferometry enables interferograms taken at multiple shears to be combined. This improves the precision of the reconstructed phase in the presence of detector noise, and enables the relative phase between disjoint spectral components to be obtained without decreasing the spectral resolution. The algorithm is applied to experimental data from two different implementations of spectral shearing interferometry for ultrashort optical pulses. In one, the shears are acquired sequentially, and in the other they are acquired simultaneously. I develop a form of spatio-temporal ultrashort pulse characterisation which performs both spatial and spectral shearing interferometry simultaneously. It requires a similar geometrical setup to common implementations of spectral phase interferometry for direct electric-field reconstruction, but provides complete amplitude and phase characterisation in time and one spatial dimension. I develop the theory of lateral shearing interferometry for spectrally resolved wavefront sensing of extended ultraviolet and soft x-ray pulses generated using high-harmonic generation. A comprehensive set of wavefront measurements of harmonics 13-25 in Krypton show good agreement with theory, validating the technique. I propose and numerically demonstrate quantum-path interferometry mediated by a weak control field for high harmonic generation. This is a general technique for measuring the amplitude and relative phases of each contributing quantum path. The control field perturbatively modulates the phase of each path. The differing sensitivity of each path to the parameters of the control field allows their contributions to be distinguished from one another.

The thesis deals with the development and characterization of new light sources, which are mandatory for applications in atomic and molecular spectroscopy, medical and biological imaging or industrial production. For that purpose, the employment of interactions of high intensity ultra-short laser pulses with gaseous media offers a rich variety of physical effects which can be exploited. The effects are characterized by a nonlinear dependency on the present light fields. Therefore, accurate modeling of the nonlinearities of the gas is crucial. In general, the nonlinearities are due to the electronic response of the gas atoms to the light field and one distinguishes between the response of bound and ionized electrons. The first part investigates laser pulse self compression, where the consideration of a purely bound electron response is sufficient. We apply an exotic setup with an negative Kerr nonlinearity in order to avoid spatial collapse of the beam on the cost of dealing with an highly dispersive nonlinearity. Analytical analysis and numerical simulations prove the possibility of laser pulse compression in such setups and reveals a new compression scheme, where the usually disturbing dispersion of the nonlinaerity is responsible for compression. Dealing with tera-Hertz generation by focusing an ionizing two-color laser pulse into gas, the second part exploits a medium nonlinearity caused by ionized electrons. We reveal in a mixed analytical and numerical analysis the underlying physical mechanism for THz generation: ionized electrons build up a current, which radiates. Thereby, the the two-color nature of the input laser is crucial for the emitted radiation to be in the tera-Hertz range. Combining this physical model with a pulse propagation equation allows us to achieve remarkable agreement with experimental measurements. Finally, the third part deals with nonlinearities from bound as well from ionized electrons on a fundamental level. We advance beyond phenomenological models for responses of bound and ionized electrons and quantum mechanically model the interaction of an ultra-short laser pulse with a gas. Already the simplest case of one dimensional hydrogen reveals basic features. For low intensities, the Kerr nonlinearity excellently describes the response of bound electrons. For increasing intensity, ionization becomes important and the response from ionized electrons is the governing one for high intensities. This quantum mechanical correct modeling allows us to explain saturation and change of sing of the nonlinear refractive index and to deduce suited approximate models for optical nonlinearities.

Le développement des sources laser ultra-brèves permet de nos jours de porter la matière dans des états extrêmes de densité et de température. Un des régimes pouvant être atteint dans ces conditions porte le nom de « Warm Dense Matter », ou matière dense et tiède. On peut la retrouver au coeur de larges planètes comme Jupiter ou dans la fusion par confinement inertiel. Les modèles de la physique usuellement utilisés ne permettant pas de décrire correctement le comportement de la matière dans ce régime, de nombreuses recherches scientifiques, à la fois expérimentales et théoriques, sont aujourd’hui orientées vers ce sujet. Sur le long terme, il s’agirait de déterminer les propriétés macroscopiques de cet état tel que les coefficients de transports et les équations d’états. De plus, le fait de travailler avec des lasers sur des échelles de temps très courtes (dans notre cas inférieures à la picoseconde) induit des phénomènes dits « hors-équilibre thermique » durant lesquels les électrons atteignent une température importante alors que les atomes restent froids. S’en suit alors une équilibration de ces deux températures, et la plupart du temps une transition de la phase solide à la phase liquide/plasma suivant l’intensité du laser employé. Pour certains métaux, appelés métaux nobles (or, argent, cuivre), un retard à la fusion est suspecté par des simulations de dynamique moléculaire quantique, du fait d’un renforcement de la stabilité du réseau cristallin. Mon travail de thèse se propose d’étudier ce phénomène par le biais de la spectroscopie XANES, technique de spectroscopie fine d’absorption X. Potentiellement, elle permet de suivre à la fois l’évolution de la structure électronique (états électroniques près du continuum), et celle du réseau cristallin (ordre local). Il s’agit de réaliser des expériences résolues en temps, basées sur un schéma pompe-sonde : une impulsion sonde de rayons X vient caractériser l’état d’un échantillon à différents délais, après le chauffage par une impulsion laser pompe qui le porte dans le régime de la Warm Dense Matter. En parallèle, je réalise des simulations numériques basées sur la dynamique moléculaire quantique pour produire des spectres XANES, et interpréter ainsi les données en termes d’évolution ultra-rapide de la structure électronique et atomique de l’échantillon. Ce travail présentant de grands défis, sur les deux plans de l’expérience et des calculs, nous avons choisi de concentrer l’étude sur le cuivre près de ses flancs L d’absorption X (~ 932 et ~ 952 eV). / Ultrashort laser sources development enables nowadays the possibility for matter to reachboth extreme pressure and temperature (~10 000 K) conditions, or what we call "WarmDense Matter ". Working with femtosecond lasers leads to out-of-equilibrium phenomenaduring which a large amount of energy is deposited in the electrons while the lattice remainscold. We used XANES spectroscopy to follow both the ultrafast evolution of the electronicstructure and the local atomic order after the irradiation of such a laser. Moreover,we can nowadays employ Quantum Molecular Dynamics to simulate Warm Dense Matter.We computed XANES spectra for thermal out-of-equilibrium situations and inthermodynamic configurations similar to the experimental ones. The confrontation of experimental data and these calculations brings a deep understanding of the phenomena involvedand their evolutions. The present study deals with the X-ray absorption near copper L3 andL2 edges (respectively 932 and 952 eV). Calculations show a pre-edge structure in the spectra,the evolution of which gives the electronic temperature dynamics. These simulationsalso suggest that the loss of the crystalline order should give rise to the disappearance ofthe post-edge structures. Several experiments have been realized using Eclipse laser and atable-top station dedicated to time-resolved XANES measurements at CELIA laboratory.At frst, some XANES spectra have been acquired using an X-ray source produced by theirradiation of a CsI solid target. This source duration of ~2 10 ps rms { approximately thethermal equilibration timescale for copper { restrained our temporal resolution. We thenused a xenon clusters gas jet to produce an X-ray source of comparable emissivity but asignificantly shorter duration. Numerous out-of-equilibrium XANES spectrahave been acquired and for diferent excitation degrees. The excellent signal-to-noiseratio allows us to follow the evolution of the post-edge structure and deduce the associateddynamics of the loss of crystalline structure. Finally, we performed the same experimentwith an X-ray source coming from the betatron radiation at LOA laboratory. With thissource, a temporal resolution of ~ 100 fs was achieved and allows us to fully characterizethe instantaneous heating of the electrons by the laser and far-from-equilibrium states.

Este trabalho teve como objetivo a montagem de um sistema de otimização de pulsos ultracurtos (oscilador laser modelocked de 15 fs), através de uma técnica de formatação de pulsos via absorção de dois fótons em compostos orgânicos. Está técnica utiliza uma estratégia evolucionária baseada em um algoritmo genético, onde se controla o formato do pulso pela deformação imposta a um espelho deformável, conjuntamente com o monitoramento de um sinal de realimentação. Desta forma, este sistema permite tanto a otimização do processo de absorção de dois fótons, quanto a otimização do próprio pulso do sistema laser. Após a montagem inicial do sistema de formatação de pulsos, foram implementados três métodos de otimização via monitoramento do processo de absorção de dois fótons, sendo que dois deles foram desenvolvidos nesta dissertação. Os métodos diferem entre si pelo emprego de distintos sinais de realimentação para o processo de otimização: (i) intensidade da fluorescência excitada por dois fótons; (ii) variação da transmitância não linear dos compostos orgânicos devido à absorção de dois fótons; e (iii) intensidade do efeito de lente térmica apresentada pelos compostos orgânicos após a absorção de dois fótons. Os três métodos de otimização apresentaram resultados similares e satisfatórios, aproximando a largura temporal do pulso ao final do processo de otimização da largura temporal dada pelo limite da transformada de Fourier, medidas através de técnicas de autocorrelação. Estes resultados apontam para a validade do uso dos métodos por nós desenvolvidos como alternativas para processos de otimização de pulsos ultracurtos. / In this work it is described the implementation of an ultrashort pulse optimization system (15 fs modelocked oscillator) that employs pulse shaping methods via two-photon absorption in organic materials. This technique uses an evolutionary strategy based on a Genetic Algorithm, where the pulse shape is controlled by a deformable mirror, while a feedback signal is monitored. In this way, this system allows both, the two-photon absorption process and pulse optimization. After the accomplishment of the pulse shaping system, we have implemented three distinct optimization methods via two-photon absorption monitoring, being two of them proposed in the present dissertation. These three methods differs from each other by the use of different feedback signals for the optimization process: (i) intensity of the two-photon excited fluorescence; (ii) nonlinear transmittance change in organic compounds due to the two-photon absorption; and (iii) intensity of the thermal lens effect. All optimization methods presented similar and satisfactory results, leading the ultrashort pulse, in the end of the optimization process, close to the Fourier transformed limit. In such cases, the pulse duration were determined through the autocorrelation technique. These results indicates that the new methods proposed here can be used as an alternative for both, pulse optimization and control of two-photon absorption process, specially for nonfluorescent samples.

Este trabalho utilizou pulsos laser ultracurtos para modificar, de forma controlada, as características dimensionais de nanopartículas de prata em solução aquosa. Para atingir este objetivo foram empregados algoritmos genéticos e circuitos microfluídicos. Utilizou-se um conformador temporal de pulsos ultracurtos para criar diversos perfis temporais de pulsos que irradiaram soluções de nanopartículas de prata. Estes perfis temporais foram ajustados em tempo real, visando otimizar o resultado do experimento, quantificada pela diminuição do diâmetro médio das nanopartículas nas soluções irradiadas. Uma vez que cada experimento de minimização do diâmetro das nanopartículas exigiu centenas de medidas, sua realização foi possível em decorrência da utilização de um circuito microfluídico construído especialmente para este trabalho. Neste circuito é possível utilizar pequenas quantidades de amostra, levando a curtos tempos de irradiação e medição, além da evidente economia de amostras. Para a realização deste trabalho foi elaborado e testado um algoritmo genético interfaceado a diversos equipamentos, incluindo um filtro acustóptico dispersivo programável que modifica as características temporais dos pulsos ultracurtos, através da introdução de componentes de fases espectrais nestes pulsos. Utilizando o algoritmo genético e o filtro acustóptico dispersivo programável foram realizados experimentos de encurtamento da duração temporal dos pulsos ultracurtos provenientes do sistema laser, resultando na obtenção de pulsos com durações próximas às limitadas por transformada de Fourier. Além disso, foram realizados experimentos para a otimização do processo evolutivo do algoritmo genético escrito em Labview. Os experimentos de irradiação de soluções de nanopartículas de prata mostraram que, ao conformar a duração dos pulsos utilizados nas irradiações, pôde-se controlar as dimensões destas nanopartículas, diminuindo seu tamanho médio por um fator 2. Esses experimentos caracterizam a irradiação de nanopartículas por lasers de pulsos ultracurtos como uma importante técnica de controle de características de nanopartículas. / This work used ultrashort laser pulses to modify, in a controlled way, the dimensional characteristics of silver nanoparticles in aqueous solution. To reach this goal, genetic algorithm and microfluidic circuits were used. A pulse shaper was used to create different temporal profiles for the ultrashort pulses used to irradiate the silver nanoparticle solutions. These temporal profiles were conformed in real time, aiming to optimize the experiment result, quantified by the decrease of the average diameter of the nanoparticles in the irradiated solutions. Since each nanoparticle diameter minimization experiment demanded hundreds of measurements, its achievement was possible by the use of a microfluidic circuit specially built for this work. This circuit enables the use of small sample quantities, leading to short irradiation and measurement intervals, besides evident sample savings. To make this work possible, a genetic algorithm was created and tested. This genetic algorithm was interfaced to several equipments, including an acustooptic programmable dispersive filter that modifies the ultrashort pulses temporal characteristics by the introduction of spectral phases in the pulses. The genetic algorithm and the acustooptic programmable dispersive filter were used in conjunction in experiments to temporally shorten the ultrashort pulses from the laser system, generating pulses durations close to the Fourier transform limited ones. Besides, experiments were performed with the Labview coded genetic algorithm to optimize its evolutionary process. The silver nanoparticles irradiation experiments showed that the ultrashort pulses temporal conformation allowed the control of these particles dimensions, decreasing its mean size by a factor of 2. These experiments characterize the nanoparticles irradiation by ultrashort pulses as an important technique to control the nanoparticles characteristics.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-18T21:39:49Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Camila Campos Dias1.pdf: 2379886 bytes, checksum: f6caa3559713f5aee5905312eed15997 (MD5) Camila Campos Dias2.pdf: 1312698 bytes, checksum: feece23943bc176a275e8b5e11dc217c (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-01-30 / Fundo Mackenzie de Pesquisa / In this work we show a study of mode-locking stabilization in an Erbium doped fiber laser with assynchronous mode-locking generating ultra-short pulses at the rate of 10 GHz. The fiber effects are presented as well as the mode-locking techniques. Also is presented a study of energy pulse stabilization, frequency and cavity, in addition an overview of stabilization techniques. Using different cavities setups with different accumulated dispersion, we analyzed the stabilization of the pulse. The temperature effects and state of polarization were studied too and we found that the temperature has greater influence on the stability. After the results of passive approach of the stabilization, we studied two methods of active stabilization, using a feedback and proposed a new one that is a new way of controlling the frequency variations in the cavity. By the use the asynchronous mode-locking, through the cavity frequency, we control the modulator frequency. For the implementation of our proposal, there are two approaches to data acquisition, using a frequency counter or a spectrum analyzer, in this work the tests were performed with the first. / Apresentamos neste trabalho um estudo da estabilização do acoplamento de modos de um laser de fibra dopada com Érbio com modos acoplados assíncronamente operando a uma taxa de 10 GHz com pulsos ultracurtos. Os efeitos que ocorrem na fibra são apresentados assim como os métodos de acoplamento de modos que geram o trem de pulsos. Também é apresentado um estudo da estabilização da energia do pulso, freqüência e cavidade, além do histórico dos meios de estabilização. Utilizando diferentes configurações de cavidade, com diferentes dispersões acumuladas, analisamos o tempo de estabilidade do pulso. Os efeitos da temperatura e do estado de polarização também foram estudados e verificamos que a temperatura tem maior influência na instabilidade. Depois dos resultados da abordagem passiva de estabilização do acoplamento de modos, estudamos dois métodos de estabilização ativa, utilizando um feedback e propusemos um novo método de feedback que é uma nova maneira de controlar as variações de freqüência na cavidade. Como utilizamos o acoplamento de modos assíncrono, através da freqüência da cavidade, controlamos a freqüência do modulador. Para a realização da nossa proposta, existem duas abordagens de aquisição de dados, utilizando um freqüencímetro ou um analisador de espectro elétrico, sendo que os testes deste trabalho foram realizados com o primeiro.

Neste trabalho investigamos a dinâmica de formação de nanopartículas de Au por pulsos de femtossegundos formatados (800 nm, 30 fs, 1 kHz e 2 mJ), induzida pela ionização da molécula de quitosana. Inicialmente desenvolvemos um sistema de formatação de pulsos ultracurtos que faz uso de um modulador espacial de luz, constituído por um arranjo linear de cristais líquidos, com o qual somos capazes de impor distintas modulações de fase ao pulso laser. Para monitorar o processo de produção de nanopartículas, montamos um sistema de excitação (pulsos de femtossegundos) e prova (luz branca), o qual permite a observação em tempo real do aparecimento da banda de plásmon e, consequentemente, da dinâmica de formação das nanopartículas. Resultados obtidos para pulsos não formatados (limitados por Transformada de Fourier) demonstraram que a formação de nanopartículas deve-se à ionização não linear da quitosana, a qual está relacionada à oxidação do grupo hidroxila para o grupo carbonila. Medidas de microscopia eletrônica de transmissão forneceram os tamanhos (entre 20 e 100 nm) e formatos (esferas, pirâmides, hexágonos, bastões, etc) das nanopartículas geradas. Ainda, nossos resultados revelaram que esta ionização é iniciada por absorção multifotônica, mais especificamente por absorção de 4 fótons. Utilizando pulsos formatados com fase espectrais constante, degrau e cossenoidal com diferentes frequências, investigamos a influência destes na formação de nanopartículas. Concluímos que os pulsos mais longos são mais favoráveis ao processo de ionização, e consequente redução dos íons de Au para a formação de nanopartículas metálicas. Este comportamento se deve, provavelmente, à redistribuição da energia absorvida para os modos vibracionais, o que é mais provável para pulsos mais longos. Assim, o método apresentado pode abrir novas maneiras para a formação de nanopartículas de metálicas, as quais podem ser mais exploradas dos pontos de vista aplicado e fundamental. / In this work we have studied the synthesis of Au nanoparticles using shaped ultrashort pulses (800 nm, 30 fs, 1 kHz and 2 mJ), induced by the ionization of the chitosan. Initially we developed a pulse shaping setup that uses a spatial light modulator (liquid crystals array), with which we are able to impose distinct phase mask to the laser pulse. In order to monitor the nanoparticles production process, we used a pump-probe system, consisting of femtosecond pulses (pump) and white light (probe), which allows the observation of the plasmon band enhancement and hence the nanoparticles formation dynamics. The results obtained by Fourier Transform limited pulses have shown that the nanoparticles formation is due to the nonlinear ionization of chitosan, which is related to hydroxyl group oxidation to the carbonyl group. Transmission electron microscopy measurements provided the sizes (20-100 nm) and shapes (spheres, pyramids, hexagons, rods, etc.) of the produced nanoparticles. Moreover, our results revealed that ionization is initiated by multiphoton absorption, more specifically by four photons absorption. Using pulses shaped with constant, step and cossenoidal (with different frequencies) spectral phase masks, we investigated their influence in the nanoparticles formation. We conclude that longer pulses are more favorable to the ionization process and, consequently, to the gold ions reduction for the synthesis of the metallic nanoparticles. This behavior is probably due to the redistribution of the absorbed energy to the vibrational modes, which is more likely for longer pulses. Therefore, the approach presented here can open new ways to produce metallic nanoparticles, which can be further explored from applied and fundamental points of view.