Freie Univ., Diplomarbeit--Berlin, 2005.

La migraine constitue un problème de santé publique ayant un impact négatif majeur dans la vie quotidienne des patients. Douze pour cent de la population mondiale souffre de migraine et son coût est évalué à 18 milliards d'euros par an dans la communauté européenne. La fréquence des crises peut augmenter au cours du temps chez certains migraineux, faisant ainsi évoluer une migraine épisodique (0 à 14 jours de crises par mois) en migraine chronique (plus de 15 jours de crises par mois). Ce processus est qualifié de transformation de la migraine. La fréquence des crises semble être un facteur important dans ce processus. Utilisant des approches comportementales, électrophysiologiques, immunohistologiques(expression de la protéine Fos), nous avons identifié une partie des mécanismes neurobiologiques impliqués dans la transformation des céphalées. En effet, en développant un modèle animal de stimulation chimique répétée des méninges nous avons évalué (1) le rôle de l'intensité et de lafréquence sur la sensibilité cutanée (2) la sensibilisation des neurones de la corne dorsale spinale et trigéminale (3) l'efficacité du traitement de fond de référence de la crise, le propranolol (4) l’implication du tronc cérébral (le locus coeruleus (LC) et la substance grise periacqueducale (PAG)) dans la sensibilisation des neurones trigéminaux et spinaux (5) l'implication du LC dans les modifications de la sensibilité cutanée induite par la stimulation chimique des méninges. Notre étude comportementale révèle que la topographie (céphalique et/ou extracéphalique) et la nature (statique ou dynamique) de l'allodynie induite par la stimulation chimique des méninges est sous l'influence de deux facteurs : l'intensité et la fréquence de la stimulation, qui peuvent entraîner sa persistance. Nos études électrophysiologiques et comportementales confirment que l'allodynie cutanée céphalique et extracéphalique est le reflet de la sensibilisation des neurones trigéminaux cervicaux et spinaux, qui peut devenir persistante. Le propranolol, permet de prévenir la modification de la sensibilité cutanée ainsi que l'altération de l'activité des neurones trigéminaux et spinaux. Nous avons également observé la sensibilisation de deux structures du tronc cérébral : la PAG et la PAG qui se traduisent par une altération persistante des CIDN. Cependant le propranolol semble prévenir l'altération de tous ces phénomènes via l'inhibition d'une seule structure le LC et non la PAG. En effet, nos microinjections de propranolol dans le LC permettent de prévenir toutes les modifications induites par la stimulation chimique des méninges. En conclusion ces résultats suggèrent que la fréquence et l'intensité des crises de migraine sont deux facteurs de risque endogène de transformation des céphalées. Un marqueur de cettetransformation est l'allodynie, qui est le reflet clinique de la sensibilisation centrale des neurones de la corne dorsale. Cette sensibilisation centrale est due à l'arrivée directe d'information provenant des méninges mais également à une altération de l'activité neuronale du LC. Nous pouvons également dire que le propranolol constitue un excellent choix dans le traitement de la crise migraineuse étant donné qu'il prévient toutes les modifications induites par la stimulation chimique des méninges et qu'il agit via le LC. / Migraine is a public health problem having a major negative impact on the daily lives of patients. Twelve percent of the world population suffers from migraine and its cost is estimated at $ 18 billion per year in the European Community. The frequency of attacks may increase over time in some migraineurs, thus evolve episodic migraine (0-14 days crises by month) in chronic migraine (more than 15 days of attacks by month). This process is called transformation of migraine. Frequency of headache attacks at baseline appears to be an important risk factor for this process. Using behavioral electrophysiological, and immunohistochemical (expression of Fos protein) approaches, we have identified some of the neurobiological mechanisms involved in the transformation of migraine. Indeed, developing an animal model of repeated chemical stimulation of the dura, we evaluated (1) the role of the intensity and frequency of chemical stimulation (crisis) on skin sensitivity (2) sensitization of second order trigeminal and spinal neurons (3) the effectiveness of font treatment reference of the crisis, propranolol (4) the involvement of the brainstem (locus coeruleus (LC) and periacqueductal grey matter (PAG)) in the sensitization of trigeminal and spinal neurons and (5) the involvement of LC changes in skin sensitivity induced by chemical stimulation of the dura. Our behavioral study reveals that topography (cephalic and / or extracephalic) and nature (static or dynamic) of allodynia induced by chemical stimulation of the dura is under the influence of two factors: intensity and frequency of stimulation, which may lead to its persistence. Our electrophysiological and behavioral studies confirm that the cephalic and extracephalic cutaneous allodynia reflects awareness of trigeminal and spinal neurons, respectively, which may become persistent. Propranolol permits to prevent changes in cutaneous allodynia, and trigeminal and spinal sensitization. We also observed the awareness of two brainstem structures: the PAG and LC which result in a persistent alteration of DNIC. However propranolol appears to prevent the alteration of these phenomena via inhibition of a single structure LC and not the PAG. Indeed, our microinjection of propranolol in the LC can prevent any changes induced by chemical stimulation of the dura. In conclusion these results suggest that the frequency and intensity of migraine attacks are two endogenous risk factors of migraine transformation. A marker of transformation is allodynia, which is the clinical expression of central sensitization of the dorsal horn neurons. This central sensitization is due to the direct arrival of information from the dura but also to an alteration of neuronal activity in LC. Based on these findings, one can suggest that patients with frequent and/or severe migraine attacks take as early as possible a migraine prophylactic treatment. This treatment should prevent the cumulative adverse functional consequences on the central nervous system of the activation of dural nociceptors.

The brain is a highly complex structure; neurons extend axons which follow precise paths to make connections with their targets. This extension is guided by a specialised and highly motile structure at the axon tip -the growth cone- which integrates guidance cues to steer the axon through the environment. Aberrant pathfinding is likely to result in developmental impairments causing disruption to brain functions underlying emotion learning and memory. Furthermore, pre-existing connections are constantly remodelled, the ability to do so declines with age, and can have huge impacts on quality of life and well-being. Examining how changes in growth cone behaviour triggered by external cues occurs is crucial for understanding processes in both development and disease. Controlled reorganisation of growth cone cytoskeletal components, such as actin filaments, generate membrane protrusions forming lamellipodia and filopodia. Filopodium formation is commonly associated with sensing the mechanical and chemical environment of the cell. Despite our understanding of the guidance choices that can be made, how filopodia transmit information at a molecular level leading to profound changes in morphology, motility and directionality remains largely unknown. Various actin-binding proteins regulate the number, stability and branching of filopodia. They may therefore have a key role in priming or abrogating the ability of the growth cone to respond to a given guidance cue. I have shown that the actin binding proteins drebrin and cofilin, whilst displaying opposing molecular activities on actin filaments, work synergistically in a temporally regulated manner. A fluorescent membrane marker combined with tagged cofilin and drebrin enabled accurate correlation of cofilin and drebrin dynamics with growth cone morphology and filopodial turnover in live neurons. In contrast to previous in vitro experiments, cofilin was found to enhance the effect of drebrin to promote filopodia formation in intact neurons, and that growth cone spread was significantly constrained when cofilin was knocked down. Importantly, this adds to our understanding of how the two actin binding proteins contribute to directed motility in neuronal growth cone filopodia during guidance. Furthermore, following acute treatment with low concentrations of the repulsive guidance cue semaphorin-3A, neuronal growth cones expressing cofilin displayed increased morphological complexity and filopodial stability. This suggests that traditional collapse signals may serve as pause signals allowing neurons to increase the surface area to sense the environment adequately and enable precise wiring decisions. Remodeling of the cytoskeleton is perturbed in a number of degenerative diseases including Alzheimer's, Huntington's, and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. These conditions are associated with widespread synaptic loss, resulting in memory loss, cognitive impairment, and movement disorders which leads to severe deterioration in quality of life for those afflicted in addition to wider negative socioeconomic impacts. How widespread synaptic loss occurs is poorly understood. One common characteristic is neuronal stress which can be initiated through different conditions such as neuroinflammation, energetic stress, glutamate excitotoxicity, and accumulation of misfolded proteins, all of which have been associated with perturbation of the actin cytoskeleton and the initiation of the cofilin-actin rod stress response. Dysfunction of the cytoskeleton can lead to the disruption of synaptic activity by blocking the delivery of elements such as organelles and proteins required for maintenance of the synapse. Modulating this stress response offers an approach to protecting the integrity of normal synaptic function. Actin interacting protein-1 is a conserved actin binding protein that enhances the filament disassembly activity of cofilin. I have discovered that AIP-1 has a potent ability to prevent the formation of cofilin rods which are thought to contribute to the neuronal dysfunction in several neurodegenerative disorders, even when they are treated with amyloid-β or subjected to metabolic stress. This is the first study to demonstrate a molecular mechanism for preventing rod formation in the presence of a neuronal stressor and has the potential to protect against rod formation by other stressors associated with disease such as inflammation and excitotoxicity. AIP-1 offers the exciting possibility of a means to reverse cofilin rod formation and the subsequent cytoskeletal pathology associated with dementia and has potential for therapeutic exploitation in human disease. Furthermore, it is the first study to demonstrate that AIP-1 localises to areas of rapid actin remodeling in neuronal growth cones. Exploiting the action of AIP-1 therefore represents an exciting and novel therapeutic avenue to tackle neurodegeneration.

Le wind-up est une augmentation progressive, fréquence dépendante, de la réponse d'un neurone lors de l'application répétitive de stimuli électriques nociceptifs identiques sur un même territoire. Ce phénomène est essentiellement exprimé par les neurones WDR de la moelle comme du trijumeau. Il dépend en partie de l'activation des récepteurs NMDA et NK1. Il est apparenté chez l'homme à la sommation temporelle et a des conséquences sur la perception de la douleur. Sa signification fonctionnelle n'est pas encore clairement établie. Chez le rat anesthésié et au sein du complexe sensitif du trijumeau, l'objectif de ce travail est : 1) d'analyser les caractéristiques et la fonction du wind-up des neurones WDR trigéminaux, 2) d'identifier les réseaux neuronaux sous tendant le wind-up et 3) d'établir le rôle des rNMDA et des rNK1 dans le wind-up. Nous avons adopté une approche électrophysiologique lors d'enregistrements extracellulaires au sein du Sp5O associés à des micro injections dans le Sp5C. De plus, une approche neuroanatomique a permis d'identifier des réseaux d'interneurones véhiculant le message depuis le Sp5C vers le Sp5O. 1) le wind-up des neurones WDR du Sp5O dépend de l'intensité de la stimulation nociceptive et permet d'améliorer les capacités de codage de stimuli nociceptifs de courte durée. Par ailleurs, nous montrons que le wind-up entraine une modification transitoire (environ 2min) de l'excitabilité des neurones WDR. Cette modification d'excitabilité générée par la wind-up est responsable uniquement de la facilitation des réponses évoquées par la mise en jeu des fibres C. Nous suggérons que l'augmentation de l'excitabilité centrale générée par le wind-up et la sensibilisation centrale sont des phénomènes différents. 2) le wind-up dépend de l'activation des rNMDA locaux alors qu'il est soumis à une inhibition via les rNMDA situés dans les couches superficielles du Sp5C. Le modèle trigéminal permet donc de montrer que, dès l'étage segmentaire, il existe un ajustement permanent de l'amplification du message douloureux. 3) enfin, le développement du wind-up dépend également de l'activation des rNK1 situés sur des interneurones localisés dans la couche III du Sp5C. En conclusion, il apparaît que le wind-up est un phénomène segmentaire permettant le codage de stimulations nociceptives de courte durée et sous tendu à la mise en jeu de voies polysynaptiques rNK1 et rNMDA dépendantes.

Image processing algorithms have developed rapidly in recent years. Imaging functions are becoming more common in electronic devices, demanding better image quality, and more robust image capture in challenging conditions. Increasingly more complicated algorithms are being developed in order to achieve better signal to noise characteristics, more accurate colours, and wider dynamic range, in order to approach the human visual system performance levels.

This thesis is focused on subject of image compression using wavelet transform. The first part of this document provides reader with information about image compression, presents well known contemporary algorithms and looks into details of wavelet compression and following encoding schemes. Both JPEG and JPEG 2000 standards are introduced. Second part of this document analyzes and describes implementation of image compression tool including inovations and optimalizations. The third part is dedicated to comparison and evaluation of achievements.

In the summer of 1953, Karlheinz Stockhausen began composing his first piece of elektronische Musik at the Westdeutscher Rundfunk Studio for Electronic Music in Cologne. Up to that point, Stockhausen's only experience with electroacoustic music was his time spent at the Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française the previous year, where he assisted Pierre Schaeffer and composed a piece of musique concrète. An early case study in the marriage of serial aesthetics and electroacoustic techniques, Studie I is a rigorously organized work that reflects Stockhausen's compositional philosophy of a unified structural principle in which all musical materials and parametric values are generated by and arranged according to a single governing series. In spite of this meticulously wrought serial structure, Studie I displays features that are the consequences of the realities of electronic sound production either imposing on the sonic result, or altering the compositional plan entirely. I use a three-part approach to my analysis of Studie I by examining Stockhausen's serial system, the electroacoustic studio techniques in use in 1953, and the original recorded realization through spectrographic analysis. Using this methodology, I expose the blurring of the supposed divide between elektronische Musik and musique concrète by exploring the features that lie between the serial plan and the technical processes Stockhausen used to realize Studie I.

Plastids are the cellular organelles where many of the visual, health and flavor-related metabolites are produced and stored in the fruit, and therefore are valuable components for consumers and breeders. The more sugar and flavor the fruit has, the more appreciated is for the consumer and industry. Thus, one of the breeder's goals is to obtain new varieties with fruits improved in these aspects. Paradoxically, fruits with a high content in chloroplasts have been avoided by the breeders because it usually suffers of oxidative stress disorders; such yellow shoulder impairment and fruit cracking when the light intensity increases. For this reason breeding efforts has been focused mainly on avoiding fruit losses and organoleptic characteristics have been neglected. This thesis aims to improve tomato fruit quality by engineering plants to produce fruits with enhanced fruit chloroplast functions and improved tolerance to oxidative stress, using cisgenic/ intragenic approaches. SlGLK1, SlGLK2 and SlAPRR2 transcription factors have been suggested to be involved in chloroplast development. Tomato MoneyMaker plants were engineered to express SlGLKs and SlAPRR2 either singly or in combination early in development. Those lines provide fruits which accumulate more sugars, carotenoids and specific volatiles than WT. The fruit chloroplast enhanced lines were characterized at the structural, metabolic, proteomics and transcriptomics. A novel additive effect in the chloroplast regulation network resulted when both transcription factors were coexpressed and a hypothesis for this effect is presented. In addition, two tomato traditional varieties (Muchamiel and Pera) expressing tomato genes for BMW anthocyanin regulatory complex under the control of the light inducible promoter (PLI) were produced and characterized. Engineered tomato plants showed large accumulation of anthocyanin specifically in the fruit peel and in Type VI trichomes. Characterization of those tissues indicated specific alterations of the flavonoid pathway that were highly dependent on the light conditions. These tomato lines could be of high interest to protect the fruit chloroplast enhancement lines from eventual stresses involving ROS, and also to assess the effect on plant growth under high light stress and in plant-pest interaction studies. / Los plastidos son orgánulos celulares donde se producen y almacenan muchos de los metabolitos relacionados con atributos organolépticos y compuestos beneficiosos para la salud, por lo tanto se consideran componentes de alto valor añadido para consumidores y mejoradores vegetales. Cuanto mayor contenido en azúcares solubles y sabor presente el fruto más se valoran por los consumidores y la industria. Por lo tanto uno de los objetivos actuales de los mejoradores de tomate es mejorar el fruto en estos aspectos. Paradójicamente, se ha seleccionado en contra de frutos con alto contenido en cloroplastos porque este carácter, bajo alta intensidad lumínica, suele estar asociado a daños en el fruto por estrés oxidativo; como los hombros amarillos del tomate o el agrietado del fruto. Por este motivo los esfuerzos en mejora se han orientado principalmente a evitar pérdidas y consecuentemente la calidad organoléptica se ha visto reducida. El objetivo de esta tesis es mejorar la calidad del fruto de tomate mediante el empleo de técnicas de ingeniería genética orientadas a incrementar los cloroplastos en fruto y mejorar la tolerancia al estrés oxidativo con una aproximación cis/ intragenica. Los factores de transcripción SlGLK1, SlGLK2 y SlAPRR2 han sido estudiados por influir en el desarrollo del cloroplasto. Plantas de tomate de variedad MoneyMaker fueron mejoradas genéticamente para expresar de forma individual o conjunta SlGLKs y SlAPRR2 en estadios tempranos de desarrollo. Estas líneas proveen frutos con mayor acumulo de azúcares, carotenos y volátiles que el control MoneyMaker. Las líneas potenciadas en desarrollo de cloroplastos se caracterizaron a nivel estructural, metabólico, proteómico y transcriptómico. Se descubrió un novedoso efecto aditivo en la regulación génica del cloroplasto cuando ambos factores de transcripción se expresan simultáneamente y se presentó una hipótesis para dicho efecto. Además se caracterizaron dos variedades tradicionales de tomate (Muchamiel and Pera) diseñadas para expresar genes pertenecientes al complejo de regulación de antocianinas BMW, bajo el control del promotor inducible por luz (PLI). Las plantas mejoradas genéticamente presentan una gran acumulación de antocianos, especialmente en piel de fruto y en tricomas tipo VI. Caracterización de estos tejidos indican alteraciones específicas en la ruta de flavonoides y una alta dependencia a condiciones de luz. Estas plantas podrían ser de gran interés para proteger frutos con altos niveles de cloroplastos frente al estrés oxidativo generado por ROS, para evaluar el efecto en el crecimiento de la planta bajo condiciones de alta luz y en futuros estudios de interacción planta-patógenos / Els plastidis són orgànuls cel.lulars on es produeixen i emmagatzemen molts dels metabòlits relacionats amb atributs organolèptics i composts beneficiosos per a la salut, per tant es consideren components d'alt valor afegit per a consumidors i milloradors vegetals. Quant major contingut en sucres solubles i sabor presenta el fruït, més serà valorat per part dels consumidors i la industria. Paradoxalment, s'ha seleccionat en contra dels fruïts amb alt contingut en cloroplasts perquè aquest caràcter, davall alta intensitat lumínica, sol estar associat amb danys en el fruït per estrés oxidatiu; com muscles groguencs de la tomata o clevitjament del fruït. Per aquest motiu, l'esforç en millora s'ha orientat principalment a evitar pèrdues de manera que la qualitat organolèptica s'ha vist reduïda. L'objectiu d'aquesta tesi es millorar la qualitat del fruït de tomata mitjançant l'ús de tècniques d'enginyeria genètica orientades a incrementar els cloroplasts al fruït i millorar la tolerància a l'estrès oxidatiu amb una aproximació cis/intragènica. Plantes de tomata de la varietat MoneyMaker foren millorades genèticament per expressar de manera individual o conjunta SlGLK1, SlGLK2 y SlAPRR2 als moments inicials del desenvolupament. Aquestes línies donen fruïts amb major acumulació de sucres, carotens i volàtils que el control MoneyMaker. Les línies potenciades amb el desenvolupament de cloroplasts es caracteritzaren a nivell estructural, metabòlic, proteòmic i transcriptòmic. Es va descobrir un nou efecte additiu en la regulació gènica del cloroplast quan ambdós factors de transcripció s'expressen de manera simultània i es va presentar una hipòtesi per a dit efecte. A més, es van caracteritzar dos varietats tradicionals de tomata (Muchamiel i Pera) dissenyades per a expressar gens que pertanyen al complex de regulació d'antocians BMW, davall el control del promotor induïble per llum (PLI). Les plantes millorades genèticament presentaren una gran acumulació d'antocians, especialment a la pell del fruït i en tricomes de tipus VI. La caracterització d'aquest teixit indica alteracions específiques en la ruta dels flavonoides i una altra dependència a condicions de llum. Aquestes plantes podrien ser de gran interès per a protegir els fruïts d'alts nivells de cloroplasts front a l'estrès oxidatiu generat pels ROS, i per a avaluar l'efecte en el creixement de la planta davall condicions d'alta llum i en futurs estudis d'interacció planta-patògen. / Cocaliadis Caisson, MF. (2017). A multilevel, developmentally controlled gene engineering strategy for tomato fortification and protection [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/90401