Abstract Peatland drainage changes catchment conditions and increases the transport of suspended solids (SS) and nutrients. New knowledge and management methods are needed to reduce SS loading from these areas. This thesis examines sediment delivery and erosion processes in a number of peatland drainage areas and catchments in order to determine the effects of drainage on sediment and erosion dynamics and mechanics. Results from studies performed in peat mining, peatland forestry and disturbed headwater catchments in Finland are presented and potential sediment load management methods are discussed for drainage areas and headwater brooks. Particular attention is devoted to erosion of organic peat, sediment transport and methods to reduce the impacts of peatland drainage in boreal headwaters. This thesis consists of six articles. The first and second papers focus on the erosion and sediment transport processes at peat harvesting and peatland forestry drainage networks. The results indicate that in-channel processes are important in drained peatland, since the drainage network often constitutes temporary inter-storm storage for eroding and transporting material. Sediment properties determine the bed sediment erosion sensitivity, as fluffy organic peat sediment consolidates over time. As flashiness and peak runoff control sediment entrainment and transport from drained peatland areas, water quality management should include peak runoff management. The third, fourth and fifth papers studies use and application of peak runoff control (PRC) method to the peat harvesting and peatland forestry conditions for water protection. Results indicate that effective water quality management in drained peatland areas can be achieved using this method. Installation of the PRC structures is a useful and cost-effective way of storing storm runoff waters temporarily in the ditch system and providing a retention time for eroded sediment to settle to the ditch bed and drainage network. The main effect of the PRC is on SS and SS-bound nutrients. The sixth paper is concentrated to test new restoration structure to be used in degraded headwater brooks. The results show that addition of woody restoration structures to the channel is effective and simple sediment management methods in headwater areas. New information provided in this thesis on sediment erosion and transport processes in drained peatland areas can help to improve water quality control in these areas. In-channel processes are important for both peatland uses, since the drainage network often constitutes temporary inter-storm storage for eroding and transporting material. Therefore, controlling these processes is a key to effective water quality management, which can be achieved using the PRC method in drainage areas or by utilisation of natural fluvial processes in natural channels downstream.

För att säkerställa nuvarande och kommande generationers tillgång till rent vatten behöver vattentäkter skyddas med områdesskydd. När vattenskyddsområden bildas delas området in i skyddszoner beroende på behovet av skydd. Vid inrättande av vattenskyddsområden meddelas föreskrifter för vilka restriktioner som gäller inom skyddsområdet. Restriktionerna kan medföra rådighetsinskränkningar som kan innebära exempelvis förbud mot hantering av kemiska bekämpningsmedel. Sådana rådighetsinskränkningar ska enligt Sveriges grundlag ersättas, om pågående markanvändning inom berörd del av fastighet avsevärt försvåras. Sker dessa inskränkningar av hälsoskydds-, miljöskydds- eller säkerhetsskäl gäller dock vad som följer av lag i fråga om rätt till ersättning. De allmänna hänsynsreglerna är sådana regler som varje fastighetsägare ska underkasta sig och därmed är rådighetsinskränkningar som sker med hänsyn till dessa inte ersättningsberättigade. Föreliggande studie inriktar sig på att utreda i vilken utsträckning beslutsmyndigheterna vid inrättande av vattenskyddsområde föreskriver förbud eller tillståndsplikt med stöd av miljöbalkens allmänna hänsynsregler och därmed undviker sin skyldighet att betala ersättning. De föreskrivna åtaganden som främst har undersökts är hantering av bekämpningsmedel, hantering av växtnäringsämnen samt upplag av skogsprodukter. Studien har också ämnat utreda ifall kommuner respektive länsstyrelser agerar olika vid inrättande av vattenskyddsområden och ifall skyddsföreskrifterna meddelar olika beroende på vilken skyddszon det gäller. I denna uppsats tillämpas den kvantitativa metoden. Undersökningen av föreskrifterna för urvalet av vattenskyddsområden gjordes kvantitativt. Som ett komplement tolkas text kvalitativt. Studien utreder olika juridiska rättskällor som berör vattenskyddsområden och rådighetsinskränkningen de kan innebära. Rättskällorna som undersökts är författningar, förordningar, en SOU och rättsfall. Utredningen av dessa har gjorts för att få klarhet i den praktiska funktionen av lagen och för att säkerställa vad som gäller. Studien visar att beslutsmyndigheterna i stor utsträckning meddelar den föreskrift som kan medföra skyldighet att erlägga ersättning till fastighetsägaren. Detta fastän det enligt praxis är godtagbart att meddela föreskrifter som innebär att beslutsmyndigheten kan kringgå sin ersättningsskyldighet. Skyddsföreskrifterna i den primära skyddszonen sammanfaller i de flesta fall inte med skyddsföreskrifterna för den sekundära zonen. Enligt studien har vilken myndighet det är som inrättar vattenskyddsområdet inte har någon inverkan på hur föreskrifterna utformas. Kommunen och Länsstyrelsen agerar alltså lika vid inrättande av vattenskyddsområden. / To ensure the current and future generations' access to clean water, water supplies need to be protected with protection areas. When the water protection area is formed, the area is divided in different protection zoned depending on the need of protection. When establishing water protection areas, regulations are issued for which restrictions apply within the protection area. The restrictions may result in restrictions on availability that may, for example, impose a ban on the management of chemical pesticides. Such restrictions on access shall, in accordance with Sweden's constitution, be compensated if ongoing land use within the affected part of the property is made considerably more difficult. However, if these limitations are for health protection, environmental protection or safety reasons, what follows from the law regarding the right to compensation. The general rules of consideration are such rules that each property owner must submit to and restrictions that take place in consideration these are not eligible for compensation. The present study focuses on investigating if the decision-making authorities, when establishing a water protection area, prescribe a prohibition or a license requirement under the general rules of consideration and thereby avoids their obligation to pay compensation. The prescribed commitments that have primarily been investigated are the management of pesticides, the management of plant nutrients and the storage of forest products. The study has also intended to investigate whether municipalities or county administrative boards act differently when establishing water protection areas and if the protection regulations indicate different depending on which protection zone applies. In the present study, the quantitative method has been applied. The examination of the regulations for the selection of water protection areas was done quantitatively. As a complement, qualitative text has been interpreted. The study investigates various legal sources of law that concern water protection areas and the restriction of access they may entail. The sources of law examined are statutes, regulations, an official investigation and court cases. The investigation of these has been done to clarify the practical function of the law and to ensure how it works. The study shows that the decision-making authorities to a large extent announce the regulation that may entail an obligation to pay compensation to the property owner. This, although according to practice, is acceptable to issue regulations that mean that the decision authority can circumvent its obligation to pay compensation. In most cases, the protection regulations in the primary protection zone do not coincide with the protection regulations of the secondary zone. According to the essay, it is concluded that which authority it is that establishes the water protection area has no impact on how the regulations are designed. The municipality and the County Administrative Board thus act equally when establishing water protection areas.

No description available.

Vid tillverkning av skåp för elkapsling har skydd mot vatten och damm stor betydelse. Tillgång till testutrustning som prövar skydd mot vatten och damm ger, effektivitet, kvalité och kostnadsbesparingar vid framtagning av elkapsling. Med högre prestation från företag kan större framsteg tas, där vinning finns gällande utveckling och miljöbesparing. Detta projekt har initierats då företaget Elkapsling AB insett behovet av egen testutrustning gällande vatten och dammskydd. Syftet var att uppnå besparing av tid och kostnader gällande testning av egen produkt. Projektet är genomfört som ett examensarbete för Maskiningenjörutbildningen (TMPRG) på Mittuniversitet (Mid Sweden University) i Östersund. Målet var att framta underlag av konstruktion för utrustning åt Elkapsling AB som uppfyller de krav och önskemål de har givit. Utrustningen var framtagen med hjälp av produktutvecklingsmetodik i projektfaser där framstegen från milstolparna redovisades i form av avstämning med Elkapsling AB spontant efter behov under projektets gång. Projektets resultat kommer i form av konstruktionsunderlag av en dammkammare för testning av dammskydd, verktyg för testning av vattenskydd samt förslag på lösningar av återanvändning av vatten. Detta skapar förutsättningar av effektivitet långsiktig besparing av pengar. Detta kan bidra även till effektivare framtagning av förbättrade produkter från Elkapsling AB. Innan utrustning kan konstrueras krävs tester och mer standardiseringar av komponenter och andra anpassningar efter Elkapsling AB egna behov. Den ekonomiska uppskattningen borde utvecklas till en mer omfattande kalkyl för att ge en bättre uppskattning över projektet riktiga kostnad i helhet / Protection against water and dust is very important in the manufacture of enclosures for electrical enclosures. Access to testing equipment that tests for water and dust protection provides efficiency, quality and cost savings in the production of electrical enclosures. With higher performance from companies, greater progress can be made, with benefits in terms of development and environmental savings. This project has been initiated when the company Elkapsling AB realised the need for its own testing equipment regarding water and dust protection. The aim was to save time and costs for testing of own products. The project is carried out as a degree project for the Mechanical Engineering Program (TMPRG) at Mid Sweden University in Östersund. The goal was to produce a design for equipment for Elkapsling AB that meets the requirements and wishes they have given. The equipment was developed using product development methodology in project phases where progress from milestones was reported in the form of reconciliation with Elkapsling AB spontaneously as needed during the course of the project. The results of the project come in the form of design documentation of a dust chamber for testing dust protection, tools for testing water protection and proposed solutions of water reuse. This creates conditions of efficiency and long-term saving of money. This can also contribute to more efficient production of improved products from Elkapsling AB. Before equipment can be realized, tests and more standardization of components and other adaptations to Elkapsling AB's own needs are required. The financial estimate should be developed into a more comprehensive calculation to give a better estimate of the true cost of the project as a whole. / <p>2022-07-01</p>

Detta examensarbete utreder om det går att reglera lagstiftning gällande ersättning vid rådighetsinskränkning på den enskilda fastighetsägarens mark, i de fall då expropriation sker i syfte att främja miljöskydd för specifikt ändamål. Utredningen avgränsas till miljöskyddet, specifikt vattenskyddsområden.  Den rättsdogmatiska metoden har legat till grund för arbetets utredning, där analys och studier av teori har genomförts inom bl.a. lagtext, doktrin, praxis och litteratur inom det aktuella forskningsområdet. Till detta har kompletterande intervjuer genomförts med advokat Michelle Hesselbrand, teknologidoktor Leif Norell och Uno Schön, funktionsansvarig för dricksvatten. Vidare redogörs för rättsfall, i syfte att åskådliggöra hur teorin tillämpas i praktiken. Vattenskyddsområden inrättas för att bevara och säkerställa kvalitet och kvantitet av råvattentillgångar. Skyddet är inrättat för att motverka kontinuerliga och tillfälliga föroreningar som människan förorsakar. Användning av bekämpningsmedel är det som förorsakar störst förorening i samband med markanvändning. Det har framkommit att rester från kemiska partiklar har hittats i vattentäkter, trots att kemikalierna sedan länge är förbjudna. Detta tyder på att nedbrytningsprocessen av kemikalierna tar lång tid och därför bör man eftersträva att använda bekämpningsmedel som är hållbara över tid och som inte förorsakar föroreningar. Vattendirektivet har upprättats av EU för att skydda och säkerställa vattenkvaliteten runt om i Europa.  I Sverige beslutar länsstyrelserna och kommunerna om vattenskyddsområden ska upprättas för ett specifikt markområde. I och med att det finns behov av att skydda vattentäkter, finns det även ett behov av att genomföra inskränkningar i markanvändningen. Genom vattenskyddsföreskrifterna förbjuds vissa typer av åtgärder och verksamheter kan bli tillståndspliktiga eller helt förbjudna. Alla individer som äger egendom omfattas av egendomsskyddet, vilket följer av 2 kap. 15 § RF. Den aktuella paragrafen har influerats av bestämmelser från EKMR:s “artikel 1-Skydd för egendom”. Fastighetsägarens egendomsskydd är starkt och kan enbart upphävas genom expropriation eller för att tillgodose angelägna allmänna intressen. Enligt 2 kap. 15 § 2 st. RF framgår att ersättningen ska bestämmas enligt grunder som anges i lag. Är det fråga om ersättning för åtgärder som sker av hälsoskydds-, miljöskydds- eller säkerhetsskäl, ska ersättningsrätten följa det som förespråkas av gällande lagstiftning, t.ex. MB.  Miljöbalken reglerar och upprätthåller bl.a. begränsningar för hälso- och miljöpåverkan. Syftet med MB är att uppnå en hållbar utveckling och säkerställa att människor i nutid och i framtid får en hälsosam och god omvärld att leva i. MB:s bestämmelser föreskriver rätten att upprätta skyddsområden för olika ändamål, som syftar till att ge skydd för påverkan som kan skada det skyddsvärda. När det beslutas om inrättande av ett skyddsområde, måste ställningstagande tas till skyddsintresset och det enskilda intresset. Om den enskildes rätt att använda mark eller vatten inskränks genom skyddsbestämmelser, får inskränkningen inte ske längre än det som krävs för att tillgodose syftet med skyddet. En intresseavvägning måste alltid ske vid inrättande av ett skyddsområde.  Den enskilde har rätt att ansöka om dispens från restriktionerna och om kompensation för intrång som upprättas för att tillgodogöra det allmänna intresset. Huruvida ersättningsrätt föreligger för den enskilde föreskrivs i bestämmelser i 31 kap. MB. Av aktuella bestämmelser framgår att ersättning ska ges för beslut som innebär att mark tas i anspråk eller att markanvändning avsevärt försvåras för den enskilde. Uppkommer skada på mark där skyddsföreskrift inrättats enligt 7 kap. 22 § MB, ska bestämmelserna i 31 kap. MB och i ExL tillämpas, när markägarens ersättning ska beräknas.  I de fall ersättning inte kan beslutas, ska föreskrifter i ExL tillämpas. De inskränkningar som får ske i äganderätten, måste vara av allmänt intresse och ha väsentlig betydelse. Expropriation sker antingen genom äganderätt, nyttjanderätt eller servitut på fastigheter som inte är statligt ägda. Vidare måste intrånget vara samhällsekonomiskt lönsamt, vilket innebär att intrånget måste överväga de olägenheter som allmänheten och den enskilde drabbas av, varvid en intresseavvägning ska ske mellan det allmänna och den enskilde. Ersättning ska utgå i de fall fastighetsägarens äganderätt inskränks eller om denne drabbas av skador som tillkommer när ett intrång sker. Det finns olika sätt att beräkna ersättningens storlek på. Det kan handla om inlösen av hela fastigheten eller om ersättning gällande intrång på del av fastigheten i samband med expropriation av ett markområde, varvid ersättning utgår från marknadsvärdet och minskningen av marknadsvärdet efter intrånget plus ytterligare 25 %. Täcker ersättningen inte skadan utgår annan ersättning för att täcka den övriga skadan. Ersättning kan också utgå för företagsskada, som uppstår när fastigheten som exproprieras drabbas av ändrad markanvändning. I uppsatsen ligger fokus på att utreda två olika ersättningsmetoder för att beräkna ersättningen vid vattenskyddsområde; Jordbruksnormen och IAN-metoden. Jordbruksnormen upprättades för att fastställa ersättning vid vägintrång och utgår från att beräkna intrångsersättning utifrån skadornas omfattning. IAN-metoden uppskattar den rättsliga minskningen i fastighetsägarens avkastningsvärde och fastställer därigenom övrig ekonomisk skada för fastighetsägaren. Genom vår litteratur- och empiristudie, har vi kunnat styrka vår uppfattning om att ingen specifik metod kan användas för att beräkna ersättning vid inrättande av specifik metod kan användas för att beräkna ersättning vid inrättande av olika förslag på framtida forskningsområden, där vi presenterar rekommendationer på hur ytterligare undersökningar kan genomföras inom området, för att bl.a. tydliggöra hur ersättningen ska fastställas och regleras utefter intrångets karaktär. / This degree project will investigate whether it is possible to regulate current legislation regarding remuneration in case of shortage of property on the land of the landowners, in cases where expropriation occurs in order to promote environmental protection for specific purposes. The investigation defines the current environmental protection, to water conservation areas, where there are essentially restrictions on ownership of the drinking water in various respects, for example, to ensure the drinking water of the municipality. The legal-judicial method will base the on-going investigation, in which we will analyze and study relevant theory, such as legal texts, doctrine, practice and literature in the current research area. Supplementary interviews will be carried out and legal cases will be explained, in order to illustrate how the theory is transformed into practice. Water conservation areas are created to preserve and ensure the quality and quantity of raw water resources. The protection is set up to counteract continuous and temporary contamination that human beings cause today or by land use in the future. Use of pesticides is what causes the greatest pollution in land use. It has been discovered that remains from chemical particles have been found in water, even though the chemicals have long been banned. This indicates that the decomposition process of the chemicals takes a long time and demonstrates the importance of striving for a sustainable use of pesticides. The European Union has established water directives to protect and ensure water quality around Europe. In Sweden, county councils and municipalities decide if water protection areas are to be established for a specific field of land. As there is a need to protect water resources, there is also a need to implement land use restrictions when drafting water protection regulations. The water protection regulations lead to land use restriction, which implies that certain types of actions or activities either become licensed or completely prohibited. All individuals who own a property are subject to property protection, according to the law. The European Convention “Article 1 Protection of Property” have influenced chapter 2 section 15 of the RF, in the Swedish legislation. The property owner's property protection is strong and can only be terminated by expropriation or to meet important public interests. Compensation shall be given in cases where expropriation occurs, according to the grounds stated in law. In case of compensation for actions that take place for health, environmental or safety reasons, the right to compensation shall comply with what is claimed by applicable legislation. The Environmental Code (MB) regulates and maintains limitations in the health and environmental impact of both present and future. The goal is to achieve sustainable development and ensure that living and future generations get a healthy and good living environment. Thus, it is the provisions of the Environmental Code that provide the right to establish protection areas with different purposes. The environmental protection provisions are intended to provide protection against harmful effects in these areas. It is thus, the authority that decides establishment of a protection area, where position must both regulate the interest of the protection as to the interest of the individual. As the individual's right to use land or water is restricted by a safeguard clause, the limitation must not exceed the time required to meet the purpose of the protection. A balance of interest must always be done when establishing a protection area. The individual is entitled to apply for exemption from the restrictions and for compensation for intrusion established to accommodate public interest. In the case of the right to compensation, the provisions of the Environmental Code (MB) chapter 31 shall apply. The section states that compensation should be given for decisions requiring land or land use in the affected part of a property, to be significantly hampered. Thus, the regulation implies that the property owner is entitled to compensation in cases where damage of the kind referred to arises as a result of the establishment of a protection regulation under chapter 7 section 22 MB. According to chapter 31, MB shall apply the provisions of ExL when calculating the landowner's compensation. In cases where compensation cannot be decided in the applicable special legislation for the specific purpose, provisions in the Expropriation Act shall apply. Restrictions that can regulate and impose the ownership must be of general interest, essential and no alternative locations may be available. Expropriation occurs either through ownership, utility or servitude on nonstate property. Furthermore, the intrusion must be socio-economically profitable, which means that the intrusion must consider the disadvantages that the public and the individual suffer from, whereby an interest balance must be made between the general and the individual. Compensation shall be paid in cases where the property owner, in the case of a forced acquisition of ownership, is liable for damage that occurs when an infringement is instituted. There are various ways to calculate the amount of compensation. Partly by means of liquidation (entire property) and intrusion compensation (part of property), which in both cases refers to the expropriation of a land area, where remuneration is based on the market value / market value reduction plus another 25 % and if the compensation would not cover the damage, other compensation is paid to cover the remaining damage. Compensation can also be granted for corporate injury that occurs when the property being expropriated is affected by changed usage conditions. This degree project focuses on investigating two different remuneration methods for calculating compensation in the water conservation area; Agricultural Standards and IAN Methods The agricultural standard was established to determine compensation for road interference, based on calculating infringement compensation according to the extent of the damage. The IAN method estimates the legal reduction in the real estate owner's return value and thereby determines other financial damage to the property owner. The authors, through interviews and court cases, have obtained information that has led to a stated conclusion for the work. The conclusion of the investigation is that no specific method can be established to calculate the compensation for the establishment of water conservation areas. The calculation of remuneration varies on a case by case basis and should be assessed according to the conditions for the individual. The degree project also discusses different proposals for future research areas and how further investigations can be carried out in the field, including clarify how compensation is determined and regulated according to the nature of the infringement.

No description available.

Source water protection is important to maintain public health by keeping harmful pathogens out of drinking water. Non-point source pollution is often times a major contributor of pollution to surface waters, and this form of pollution can be difficult to quantify. This study examined physical, chemical, and microbiological water quality parameters that may indicate pollution and may help to identify sources of pollution. These included measures of organic matter, particles, and indicator organisms (fecal coliforms and E. coli). The parameters were quantified in the West Boylston Brook, which serves as a tributary to the Wachusett Reservoir and is part of the drinking water supply for the Metropolitan Boston area. Water quality was determined over four seasons at seven locations in the brook that were selected to isolate specific land uses. The water quality parameters were first analyzed for trends by site and by season. Then, a correlation analysis was performed to determine relationships among the water quality parameters. Lastly, ANOVA analyses were used to determine statistically significant variations in water quality along the tributary.

Protection of groundwater sources has become an important issue in Canada. Over the last decade many approaches to the protection of groundwater sources have evolved. Some approaches provide qualitative information while others give quantitative values with respect to protection measures. The objective of the thesis is to examine the existing approaches of source water protection (SWP) using a complex geological setting, and introduce new methodologies towards the quantitative measurement of the various steps of SWP. The information obtained from the studies can be used to set up future guidelines for SWP. The first step in SWP is to assess the vulnerability of an aquifer. In this thesis, we compare three approaches for evaluating aquifer vulnerability: the Index Approach (Intrinsic Susceptibility Index, or ISI), the Hydraulic Resistance (HR) Approach (similar to the Aquifer Vulnerability Index, or AVI) and the Travel Time Approach (Surface to Aquifer Advective Time, or SAAT). The ISI approach uses the thickness and vertical hydraulic conductivity of the layers overlying an aquifer, and the vulnerability is expressed as a numerical score which is related to these parameters but is not physically based. The HR approach is physically based, uses the same parameters as ISI with the addition of porosity, and results are in the form of travel time under a unit gradient. SAAT extends the physically based approach by including the unsaturated zone and using the actual downward gradient; results are given in terms of advective travel time from surface to aquifer. These three approaches are compared, using two different aquifer systems. The second step in SWP is the delineation of wellhead protection areas (WHPAs). The WHPA delineates the area within which a source of contamination could have an impact on the well. The actual impact on the well depends not only on the source, but also on the characteristics of the groundwater system. Important considerations include the dimensionality of the system, the uncertainty in the system characteristics, and the physical processes that could affect the impact. The conventional approach is to define different time of travel (TOT) zones based on backward advective particle tracking. An alternative approach is to apply backward advective-dispersive solute transport modelling, in which dispersion can be taken as representing the uncertainty in defining the hydrogeologic characteristics (e.g. hydraulic conductivity) of the aquifer. The outlines of the TOT zones in the backward advective particle tracking approach is obtained by drawing an envelope around the respective tracks, which may require considerable guesswork. In the backward-in-time transport modelling, the outline of the TOT zones are developed using mass balance principles. The third step is the assessment of well vulnerability. Well vulnerability is based on the source-pathway-receptor concept which analyses the transport and fate of the contaminants along its path from the source to the receptor, and the interaction of the well itself with the flow system, and thus determines the actual impact on the well. The impact can be expressed in terms of the contaminant concentration in the well water. The mapping of the impact can be carried out by using a standard advective-dispersive transport model in either a forward-in-time mode (for a known contaminant source) or in a backward-in-time mode (for unknown sources). Thus, the well vulnerability concept goes beyond the conventional approach of WHPA, which is based solely on advective transport, neglecting dispersion and chemical processes. For any known point or non-point time-varying contaminant sources located arbitrarily within the well capture zone, the expected concentration at the well can simply be evaluated by convoluting the source mass with the results of the well vulnerability without further use of the model. Convolution is a well-known and effective superposition method to deal with arbitrary inputs in time and space for linear systems. The information of the contaminant concentration in the well water can be used to quantify the risk of a well becoming contaminated. Risk can be expressed in terms of the exposure value of the contaminant concentration exceeding the allowable limit and the time frame within which the well becomes contaminated. The exposure value can be integrated with the time element to set up a ranking of priorities, or to calculate the investment that must be made today in order to have the required funds available for remediation at the time it becomes necessary. The concept is applied to a well using hypothetical contaminant sources located arbitrarily within the capture zone. Well vulnerability maps can be used as a powerful tool to identify the optimal locations for Beneficial Management Practices (BMPs). A case study addressing the problem of elevated nitrate levels in a drinking water supply well is used to demonstrate the principle. The reduction of nitrate input concentration within the most vulnerable areas shows the largest impact at the well.

Protection of groundwater sources has become an important issue in Canada. Over the last decade many approaches to the protection of groundwater sources have evolved. Some approaches provide qualitative information while others give quantitative values with respect to protection measures. The objective of the thesis is to examine the existing approaches of source water protection (SWP) using a complex geological setting, and introduce new methodologies towards the quantitative measurement of the various steps of SWP. The information obtained from the studies can be used to set up future guidelines for SWP. The first step in SWP is to assess the vulnerability of an aquifer. In this thesis, we compare three approaches for evaluating aquifer vulnerability: the Index Approach (Intrinsic Susceptibility Index, or ISI), the Hydraulic Resistance (HR) Approach (similar to the Aquifer Vulnerability Index, or AVI) and the Travel Time Approach (Surface to Aquifer Advective Time, or SAAT). The ISI approach uses the thickness and vertical hydraulic conductivity of the layers overlying an aquifer, and the vulnerability is expressed as a numerical score which is related to these parameters but is not physically based. The HR approach is physically based, uses the same parameters as ISI with the addition of porosity, and results are in the form of travel time under a unit gradient. SAAT extends the physically based approach by including the unsaturated zone and using the actual downward gradient; results are given in terms of advective travel time from surface to aquifer. These three approaches are compared, using two different aquifer systems. The second step in SWP is the delineation of wellhead protection areas (WHPAs). The WHPA delineates the area within which a source of contamination could have an impact on the well. The actual impact on the well depends not only on the source, but also on the characteristics of the groundwater system. Important considerations include the dimensionality of the system, the uncertainty in the system characteristics, and the physical processes that could affect the impact. The conventional approach is to define different time of travel (TOT) zones based on backward advective particle tracking. An alternative approach is to apply backward advective-dispersive solute transport modelling, in which dispersion can be taken as representing the uncertainty in defining the hydrogeologic characteristics (e.g. hydraulic conductivity) of the aquifer. The outlines of the TOT zones in the backward advective particle tracking approach is obtained by drawing an envelope around the respective tracks, which may require considerable guesswork. In the backward-in-time transport modelling, the outline of the TOT zones are developed using mass balance principles. The third step is the assessment of well vulnerability. Well vulnerability is based on the source-pathway-receptor concept which analyses the transport and fate of the contaminants along its path from the source to the receptor, and the interaction of the well itself with the flow system, and thus determines the actual impact on the well. The impact can be expressed in terms of the contaminant concentration in the well water. The mapping of the impact can be carried out by using a standard advective-dispersive transport model in either a forward-in-time mode (for a known contaminant source) or in a backward-in-time mode (for unknown sources). Thus, the well vulnerability concept goes beyond the conventional approach of WHPA, which is based solely on advective transport, neglecting dispersion and chemical processes. For any known point or non-point time-varying contaminant sources located arbitrarily within the well capture zone, the expected concentration at the well can simply be evaluated by convoluting the source mass with the results of the well vulnerability without further use of the model. Convolution is a well-known and effective superposition method to deal with arbitrary inputs in time and space for linear systems. The information of the contaminant concentration in the well water can be used to quantify the risk of a well becoming contaminated. Risk can be expressed in terms of the exposure value of the contaminant concentration exceeding the allowable limit and the time frame within which the well becomes contaminated. The exposure value can be integrated with the time element to set up a ranking of priorities, or to calculate the investment that must be made today in order to have the required funds available for remediation at the time it becomes necessary. The concept is applied to a well using hypothetical contaminant sources located arbitrarily within the capture zone. Well vulnerability maps can be used as a powerful tool to identify the optimal locations for Beneficial Management Practices (BMPs). A case study addressing the problem of elevated nitrate levels in a drinking water supply well is used to demonstrate the principle. The reduction of nitrate input concentration within the most vulnerable areas shows the largest impact at the well.

Source water protection planning (SWPP) is an approach to prevent contamination of ground and surface water in watersheds where these resources may be abstracted for drinking or used for recreation. For SWPP the hazards within a watershed that could contribute to water contamination are identified together with the pathways that link them to the water resource. In rural areas, farms are significant potential sources of pathogens. A risk-based index can be used to support the assessment of the potential for contamination following guidelines on safety and operational efficacy of processes and practices developed as beneficial approaches to agricultural land management. Evaluation of the health risk for a target population requires knowledge of the strength of the hazard with respect to the pathogen load (mass concentration). Manure handling and on-site wastewater treatment systems form the most important hazards, and both can comprise confined and unconfined source elements. There is also a need to understand the modification of pathogen numbers (attenuation) together with characteristics of the established pathways (surface or subsurface), which allow the movement of the contaminant species from a source to a receptor (water source). Many practices for manure management have not been fully evaluated for their impact on pathogen survival and transport in the environment. A key component is the identification of potential pathways of contaminant transport. This requires the development of a suitable digital elevation model of the watershed for surface movement and information on local groundwater aquifer systems for subsurface flows. Both require detailed soils and geological information. The pathways to surface and groundwater resources can then be identified. Details of land management, farm management practices(including animal and manure management) and agronomic practices have to be obtained, possibly from questionnaires completed by each producer within the watershed. To confirm that potential pathways are active requires some microbial source tracking. One possibility is to identify the molecular types of Escherichia coli present in each hazard on a farm. An essential part of any such index is the identification of mitigation strategies and practices that can reduce the magnitude of the hazard or block open pathways.