Accounting choice has prior to this dissertation been studied comprehensively in the private sector, and in a small extent in the public sector. The purpose of this study is to explain what factors influence the accounting choice in municipal corporations. The dependent variable, accounting choice, has been limited to explain if the municipal corporations either use the fair-value method or the cost-depreciation method when considering asset value loss. The independent variables are partly derived from the New Public Management, which is an umbrella term for the decentralisation of public state authority. The findings of the study indicate that the factors municipal corporations’ dual role does not influence the accounting choice. However, a correlation between the turnover and the use of the fair-value method has been found. The study also shows that there is a correlation between the regulations of the Municipal Act and the use of fair-value method. Furthermore, only one of the hypotheses was found significant. This stated that there is a positive correlation between the financing from the private sector and the use of cost-depreciation method to value tangible assets. The findings indicate that one cannot study municipal corporations as a single phenomenon (i.e. no municipal corporations is another alike). This is because they incorporate charachteristics from both the public and the private sector, and thus, have different levels of publicness. The limitation of this study is that the dependent variable accounting choice is only considering the asset value loss (i.e. fair-value and cost-depreciation method), and thus, does not give a holistic picture of the research field.

Huvudsyftet med denna studie är att ta reda på om mindre onoterade aktiebolag som arbetar med forskning och utveckling valt att tillämpa K2- eller K3-regelverket. Delsyftet är att undersöka vilka faktorer som kan inverka på valet. En förhoppning med studien är att denna kan vara till hjälp för de företag som står inför valet mellan K2 och K3. I studien har en kvantitativ metod tillämpats. Empiriskt material har samlats in genom årsredovisningar, via databasen Retriever samt via kontakt med ansvarig person på företagen i urvalet. Insamlad data har sedan analyserats med hjälp statistiska analyser. Variabler som kan tänkas påverka valet av regelverk har tagits fram utifrån redan erkända teorier samt ur tidigare forskning. Variablerna presenterats i en a priori-modell. En undersökningsmodell har sedan utformats då alla tänkbara variabler ur den teoretiska referensramen inte är möjliga att undersöka på grund av metodval. Resultatet i denna studie visar på att övervägande del av företagen valt att tillämpa K3-regelverket trots att det är K2-regelverket som är det regelverk som rekommenderas för denna kategori av företag. Dessutom gjorde studiens tidsram det omöjligt att samla in fler årsredovisningar än de som inkom, detta gav ett stort bortfall som troligtvis påverkat studiens resultat. En liknande studie i höst skulle ge ett bättre empiriskt material och därmed förhoppningsvis ett generaliserbart resultat. / The main objective of this study is to find out the reasons why small and limited companies working with R&D would decide to apply K2 or K3 regulations and to investigate what factors may influence that choice. One hope of the study, if completed successfully and thoroughly, is that it may serve as a guide in order to help companies faced with this choice. The study is based on a quantitative method. Empirical data was collected through annual reports, through the database, Retriever, and by having contact with the CFO. Further, the empiric data was analyzed using statistical analysis and the variables that could affect the choice of framework were found in acknowledged theories as well as previous research regarding accounting choices. The variables are presented in a “A priori-model”. A research model was formed since all possible variables from the theories could not be investigated due to methodological choices. The empirical data has been presented in the form of tables, charts and then discussed regarding previous research. The results of this study show that the majority of the companies decided to apply the K3 regulations, even though the K2 regulation were recommended for that category of company. In addition, the study's timeframe made it impossible to collect any more annual reports than what was received, this may affect the results of this study. A similar study in the fall would give better empirical data.

Bakgrund: År 2005 blev det obligatoriskt för börsnoterade koncerner inom EU att upprätta sin redovisning enligt IFRS som har utvecklats för att harmonisera redovisningen mellan olika länder, eftersom ekonomin har blivit mer internationaliserad. I Sverige började bokföringsnämnden att ta fram ett nytt regelverk K3 som började tillämpas 2013 för större svenska onoterade koncerner. Det gjorde att onoterade koncerner fick en valmöjlighet att frivilligt välja mellan att redovisa enligt IFRS eller K3 regelverket. Dessa regelverk har många liknande beröringspunkter men det finns vissa skillnader, exempelvis i upplysningskrav och hur goodwill redovisas. Problemformulering: Varför väljer svenska onoterade koncerner att tillämpa K3 eller IFRS? Syftet: Studiens syfte är att skapa en ökad förståelse för redovisningsval, men mer specifikt på onoterade koncerners val mellan att tillämpa regelverken K3 eller IFRS. Metod: I denna studie har en kvalitativ metod använts för att kunna få företagsledningens syn på vad som har orsakat regelverksvalet som deras koncerner har tagit. För att kunna uppnå syftet har en datainsamling med tio intervjuer genomförts med fem K3 och fem IFRS koncerner. De som intervjuades var CFOer från företagsledningen eller en anställd med ekonomiansvar. Detta har varit ett strategiskt urval, vilket är det som skribenterna anser vara det bästa urvalet som överensstämmer med studiens syfte. Resultat och slutsats: Studien kunde påvisa att alla tre isomorfismer i den institutionella teorin kunde förklara regelverksvalet. I K3 kunde det ses att framför allt den tvingande isomorfismen var avgörande och i IFRS koncernerna var det mer den härmande isomorfismen. Studien menar även att ett val av K3 kan förklaras av en kombination av normativ isomorfism genom att de har hamnat i “business-as-usual” och tvingande isomorfism genom att informationsasymmetrin ses vara mindre mellan företagsledningen och ägarna i K3 koncerner. Revisorns brist på kunskap av IFRS kan sätta ett normativt och härmande tryck på en koncern att välja K3. / Background: In 2005, it became mandatory for listed companies within the EU to use IFRS as an accounting standard which has been developed to harmonize accounting between different countries as the economy has become more internationalized. In Sweden, the Accounting Board began to develop a new set of regulations, K3, which were applied in 2013 for larger Swedish unlisted companies. This gave the larger unlisted companies a choice to voluntarily choose between reporting in with IFRS or the K3 regulations. These regulations have many similar points of contact, but there are some differences, for example in disclosure requirements and how goodwill is reported. Research question: Why do Swedish private concerns choose to apply K3 or IFRS? Purpose: The purpose of this study is to create an increase of understanding in accounting choices, but more specifically to larger unlisted companies’ choices between applying the regulations K3 or IFRS. Method: In this study, a qualitative method was used to get the business management’s view of what it was that made their larger unlisted companies make their particular accounting choice.In order to achieve the purpose, a data collection with ten interviews was conducted with five K3 and five IFRS groups. Those interviewed were CFOs from company management or an employee with financial responsibility. This has been a strategic selection, which is what the writers consider to be the best selection that is in line with the purpose of the study. Results and conclusion: The study was able to show that all three isomorphisms in the institutional theory could explain the choice of regulations. In K3 it could be seen that above all the compelling isomorphism was decisive and in the IFRS groups it was more the imitating isomorphism. Choosing K3 can be explained by a combination of normative isomorphism in that they have ended up in "business-as-usual" and compelling isomorphism in that the information asymmetry is seen between management and the owners of K3 groups. The auditor's lack of knowledge of IFRS can put normative and imitative pressure on a group to choose K3.

Titel: K2 eller K3 : Motiv till att redovisa enligt K3  Författare: Adrian Zhubi och Albert Zhubi  Färdigställt: Våren 2016  Handledare: Eva Berggren Bakgrund: BFN har sedan 2004 gett ut allmänna råd, vilket har medfört att K-projektet skapats där företag delas in i fyra olika kategorier beroende på företagsstorlek. K-projektets vanligaste regelverk är huvudregelverket principbaserade K3 och alternativregelverket regelbaserade K2. Sedan 2015 är det obligatoriskt för samtliga aktiebolag och ekonomiska föreningar att tillämpa ett av dessa två regelverk. Företag bör därmed reflektera över dess verksamhet och intressenter vid val av regelverk. Valet kan ställa krav på att årsredovisningen ska vara relevant för intressenter. Vi vill därför med studien undersöka vilka väsentliga skillnader som förklarar att företag väljer K3 framför K2. Detta utifrån redovisningsrådgivares perspektiv.  Syfte: Syftet med studien är att förklara vilka skillnader som ligger bakom att företag föredrar K3 istället för K2 utifrån redovisningsrådgivares perspektiv.  Problemformulering: Vad anser redovisningsrådgivare förklarar företags val av K3 framför K2?  Metod: Studien består av en kvalitativ ansats. Den empiriska datan består av totalt fem intervjuer, varav en är pilotintervju. Studiens respondenter består av tre revisorer, en redovisningsexpert samt en redovisningsspecialist. Respondenterna har olika erfarenheter och är från olika revisionsbyråer. Resultat: Studien visar att redovisningsrådgivare anser skillnader i materiella, immateriella och finanisella anläggningstillgångar i K2 och K3 gör att företag föredrar K3. Avsättningar, uppskjuten skatt och intressenter är även påverkande faktorer. Samtliga respondenter var eniga om att K2 är enklare att tillämpa då regelverket innehåller handfasta regler för redovisning. K3 ställer större krav på kunskap vid professionell bedömning då regelverket tar hänsyn till en komplex verksamhet med fler företagsintressenter. / Title: K2 or K3 : Reasons to account according to K3  Authors: Adrian Zhubi and Albert Zhubi  Published: Spring 2016  Tutor: Eva Berggren  Background: Since 2004 BFN has given accounting standards, which started the K-project that divides companies into four different categories based on company size. The K-project's most common regulations are the main regulation principles-based K3 and the alternative regulation rules-based K2. Since 2015 it became mandatory for all joint-stock companies and economic associations to apply one of these two regulations. Companies should therefore reflect on its business and stakeholders when making a choice of regulation. This requires that the annual report should be relevant to the stakeholders. With the study we therefore want to examine the main differences that explains why companies choose K3 instead of K2 from accounting advisors’ perspective.  Aim: The aim of the study is to describe why companies prefer K3 instead of K2 according to accounting advisors.  Formulation of the problem: What do accounting advisors consider explains the companies’ choice of K3 instead of K2?  Methodology: The study is based on a qualitative approach. The empirical data contains a total of five interviews, one of those is a pilot interview. The study's respondents are three auditors, an accounting expert and an accounting specialist. The respondents have different experiences and are from different accounting firms. Results: The study shows that accounting advisors consider differences in tangible, intangible and financial assets between K2 and K3 makes companies prefer K3. Factors as depositions, deferred taxes and stakeholders also affects the choice. According to the study’s respondents, K2 is easier to apply because the regulation contains robust rules for accounting. K3 require greater knowledge at professional judgement, because the regulation includes companies with a complex business with many stakeholders.

The perennial controversy in business combinations accounting and its dialectic with stakeholders’ interests under the complexity of the Mergers and Acquisitions (M&A) activity is the centrepiece of analysis in this thesis. It is argued here that the accounting regulation should be as neutral as possible for the economic activity, although it is recognised that accounting changes may result in economic effects. In the case of the changes for business combinations accounting in the USA, lobbying was so fierce that in order to achieve the abolition of accounting choice in M&A accounting, it forced the standard-setter to compromise and to change substantially some of its earlier proposals. Such fierce lobbying cast doubts about whether it was effectively possible to mitigate such economic effects, resulting in a possible impact of the accounting changes on the M&A activity. The occurrence of M&A in waves is yet to be fully theorised. Nevertheless, existing literature established relationships between M&A activity and some key economic and financial factors, and has provided several interesting theories and other meaningful contributions for this thesis. It was therefore possible to examine whether the changes in the accounting rules produced any significant impact on the M&A activity. The findings obtained from the testing of the research hypotheses suggest that the new M&A accounting rules did not result in significant impacts on overall M&A activity. Nevertheless, from the study of managers’ perceptions, and from the examination of annual reports of S&P 500 companies, a considerable impact on the financial reporting was found.

Syfte: Syftet med uppsatsen är att beskriva och analysera hur kommunala energibolag resonerar vid val av avskrivningsmetod samt hur kommunala energibolag har förberett sig inför införandet och hur de förhåller sig till implementeringen av komponentavskrivningar. Teorier: De teorier som använts i uppsatsen finner vi vara relevanta och applicerbara utifrån studiens syfte och frågeställningar. Vi har bl.a. använt oss av Burns & Scapens ramverk som ingår i den institutionella teorin, vilket är den teori som studien utgått ifrån. Metod: Studien utgår ifrån den kvalitativa ansatsen med hjälp av semi-strukturerade intervjuer och dokumentgranskning. Empiri: Empirin innefattar intervjuer med 5 kommunala energibolag inkluderande granskning av relevant dokumentation. Slutsatser: Studien har visat att de kommunala energibolagen upplever avskrivningsval som en svårbedömd process som präglas av en inre tröghet på grund av påverkande faktorer och inrotade regler och rutiner. I och med tolkningen och införandet av BFNs regelverk avseende komponentavskrivningar har ett internt motstånd byggts upp på grund av svåra och godtyckliga bedömningar. Detta har bidragit till en spretighet, vilket har påkallat behovet av tydligare rekommendationer och direktiv. Trots det något haltande implementeringsarbetet, ställer sig alla respondenterna positiva till införandet och kan se ett värde i det även om det initialt innebär ett merarbete. / Purpose: The purpose of this study is to describe and analyze how municipal energy companies reason in the choice of depreciation method and how municipal energy companies has prepared for the introduction and implementation of component depreciation. Theory: The theories used in this study, we find to be relevant and applicable to the specific research purpose and research questions. We have among other things, used the Burns & Scapens Framework that is part of the institutional theory, which is the theory that the study assumed. Method: The study is based on the qualitative approach using semi-structured interviews and document review. Empirics: The empirical data includes interviews with five municipal energy companies including review of relevant documentation. Conclusions: The study has shown that municipal energy companies are experiencing depreciation choice as a process that is difficult to estimate, and is characterized by inertia due to influencing factors and ingrained rules and routines. With the interpretation and implementation of BFNs regulation relating to component depreciation has an internal resistance due to difficult and arbitrary assessments, been built up. That has contributed to a wide range of estimations, which has demand the need for clearer recommendations and directives. Despite the halting implementation work, all respondents welcomed the introduction and can see a value in it even if it initially involves extra work.

O valor justo tornou-se um princípio de mensuração crucial na contabilidade internacional e seu aumento nos relatórios financeiros tem gerado debates tanto na prática quanto na literatura acadêmica. Particularmente ao mensurar uma dívida de longo prazo, discussões acerca do uso do valor justo continuam controversas e ainda não chegaram a um consenso na literatura acadêmica e entre os praticantes. Em 2010, o International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) reeditou a International Financial Reporting Standard (IFRS) 9 - Financial Instruments, norma que substitui a IAS 39, introduzindo um novo tratamento contábil para as variações do valor justo atribuíveis às alterações no risco próprio de crédito (own credit risk - OCR) em passivos financeiros designados ao valor justo por meio do resultado (fair value option for liabilities - FVOL). Pela IAS 39, o OCR era tratado na demonstração de resultado (DRE), enquanto a IFRS 9 requer que seja tratado em outros resultados abrangentes. Em novembro de 2013, o IASB alterou a IFRS 9 para permitir que as empresas adotassem antecipadamente o novo tratamento contábil de OCR sem precisar aplicar completamente a IFRS 9. A mudança no tratamento contábil e a alteração na IFRS 9 instigaram uma análise aprofundada sobre seus possíveis impactos. Nesse sentido, este estudo examina dois tópicos relacionados: os incentivos para a adoção antecipada do tratamento contábil de OCR sem a adoção completa da IFRS 9 e os efeitos sobre a relevância informacional do lucro líquido. A amostra é não probabilística e contém instituições financeiras internacionais que aplicam o IFRS e possuem FVOL. Baseando-se em modelos logísticos, os resultados de escolhas contábeis indicam que o Retorno sobre Patrimônio Líquido (ROE) e fatores institucionais e macroeconômicos influenciam a probabilidade de adoção antecipada do novo tratamento contábil de OCR. Embora a volatilidade dos lucros tenha sido uma preocupação que pressionou o IASB a mudar o tratamento contábil de OCR, não há evidências que ela tenha influenciado a probabilidade de adotar antecipadamente o novo tratamento contábil. Da mesma forma, não há evidências que a volatilidade dos ativos disponíveis para venda tenha influenciado a probabilidade de adotar antecipadamente o novo tratamento contábil de OCR. Baseado em modelos lineares múltiplos, os resultados de relevância informacional revelaram que após eliminar da DRE as variações do valor justo atribuíveis às alterações em OCR, a relevância informacional não aumentou significativamente. Tal achado é inconsistente com o objetivo primário do IASB para a IFRS 9, que era de aumentar a relevância informacional dos lucros. Esta pesquisa contribui para a literatura existente, pois, até onde sei, esta é a primeira investigação sobre a escolha contábil de adotar antecipadamente o tratamento contábil de OCR e sobre a relevância informacional dos lucros após a adoção mandatória da IFRS 9, em 2018. Assim, este estudo contribui para esse controverso, porém interessante assunto para a pesquisa e a prática, o risco próprio de crédito de FVOL, cuja literatura ainda é incipiente e não atingiu um consenso. Abordar a opção do valor justo e o risco próprio de crédito é uma oportunidade de contribuir para o preenchimento de uma lacuna na literatura contábil e tentar aproximar os acadêmicos e os profissionais. / Fair value accounting has become a crucial measurement principle in international accounting, and its increase in financial reporting has generated debate both in practice and in the academic literature. Particularly when measuring long-term debt, discussions surrounding the use of fair value remain controversial and have not yet reached a consensus in the accounting literature and among practitioners. In 2010, the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) reissued the International Financial Reporting Standard (IFRS) 9 - Financial Instruments, which replaces IAS 39, introducing a new accounting treatment of fair value changes attributable to changes in firms\' own credit risk (OCR) of financial liabilities designated as at fair value through profit or loss (FVOL). Under IAS 39, OCR used to be treated in the income statement, whereas IFRS 9 requires the treatment in other comprehensive income instead. In November 2013, the IASB amended IFRS 9 to permit entities to early adopt the new accounting treatment of OCR without the need to adopt IFRS 9 entirely. This change in the accounting treatment and the amendment in IFRS 9 instigated a depth analysis about its possible impacts. In that sense, this study examines two related topics: the incentives to early adopt the new accounting treatment of OCR without adopting IFRS 9 entirely, and the effects on the value relevance of net income figure. The sample is non-probabilistic and contains international financial institutions that apply IFRS, and have FVOL. Based on logistic models, the results on accounting choice indicate that the Return on Equity (ROE) and institutional and macroeconomic factors influence the likelihood to early adopt the new accounting treatment of OCR. Although volatile earnings were a concern that put pressure on the IASB to change the accounting treatment of OCR, there is no evidence that earnings volatility influenced the likelihood to early adopt the new accounting treatment. Similarly, there is no evidence that the available-for-sale volatility influenced the likelihood to early adopt the new accounting treatment of OCR. Based on multiple linear regressions, the results on value relevance reveal that after eliminating fair value changes attributable to changes of OCR out of the income statement, the value relevance is not significantly increased. This finding is inconsistent with the primary objective of the IASB for IFRS 9, which is to increase the value relevance of earnings. This research adds the extant literature because, as far as I know, this is the first investigation on the accounting choice to early adopt the accounting treatment of OCR, and on the value relevance of net income figures after the mandatory adoption of IFRS 9, in 2018. Thus, this study contributes to this controversial, but an interesting issue for research and practice, the own credit risk of FVOL, whose literature is still incipient and have not yet reached a consensus. Addressing the fair value option and the own credit issue is a chance to contribute to the fulfilment of a gap in the accounting literature and to try to approximate academics and practitioners.

Die vorliegende Dissertation untersucht empirisch das Auftreten und die Konsequenzen von Bilanzpolitik deutscher nicht-kapitalmarktorientierter Unternehmen. Sie besteht aus drei separaten Forschungsarbeiten, in denen Jahres- bzw. Konzernabschlüsse nach der Umstellung der handelsrechtlichen Rechnungslegung auf den Stand des Gesetzes zur Modernisierung des Bilanzrechts (BilMoG) in den Jahren 2009 und 2010 analysiert werden. Die Arbeiten verdeutlichen, dass neben dem vergleichsweise gut dokumentierten Anreiz zur Vermeidung von Steuerzahlungen weitere bilanzpolitische Motivationen bei deutschen nicht-kapitalmarktorientierten Unternehmen einschlägig sind. Die Ergebnisse enthalten Evidenz dafür, dass von der Bundesnetzagentur für Elektrizität, Gas, Telekommunikation, Post und Eisenbahnen regulierte Gasnetzbetreiber Wahlrechte in Erlösobergrenzen maximierender Art und Weise ausüben. Darüber hinaus geben die Ergebnisse Hinweise darauf, dass Ergebnisglättung betrieben wird, Berufsmanager das Periodenergebnis maximieren und Unternehmen mit geringer Eigenkapitalausstattung gezielt ihr Eigenkapital erhöhen. / This cumulative PhD-thesis consists of three papers. Using the adoption of new German GAAP in 2009 and 2010 the three studies investigate earnings management of private firms in the absence of the well documented incentive to minimize tax payments. The results show that in regulated industries regulation mechanisms can be a main driver for earnings management. Furthermore, the studies indicate that (i) private firms engage in earnings smoothing, (ii) outside-managers use income increasing accounting methods, and (iii) firms with a higher likelihood to violate debt covenants use equity increasing accounting methods.

<p>Syftet med denna uppsats har varit att undersöka i vilken utsträckning företag på Stockholmsbörsen följer IAS 36 p. 134, vilket behandlar nedskrivningsprövning av goodwill. Även vilka faktorer som påverkar denna informationsutgivning analyseras.</p> / <p>The purpose of the thesis is to investigate to which extent companies on the Stockholm stock exchange comply with IAS 36 p. 134, and which factors that may affect the compliance with IAS 36 p. 134.</p>

Syftet med denna uppsats har varit att undersöka i vilken utsträckning företag på Stockholmsbörsen följer IAS 36 p. 134, vilket behandlar nedskrivningsprövning av goodwill. Även vilka faktorer som påverkar denna informationsutgivning analyseras. / The purpose of the thesis is to investigate to which extent companies on the Stockholm stock exchange comply with IAS 36 p. 134, and which factors that may affect the compliance with IAS 36 p. 134.