The aim of the study was to compare the wording of assignments in two textbooks in Swedish with the focus on their level of linguistic difficulty. The textbooks are intended for grade 3 and grade 4 respectively. The comparison considers factors that affect the difficulty of a text, and the study is based on the following analytical categories: parts of speech, word length, compound words, sentence length, noun quota, and readability index. The results of the study indicate that the assignment descriptions in grade 4 are at a textually higher level of difficulty in five of six analytical categories, since the assignment descriptions in grade 3 can be perceived as more colloquial, with a lower readability index and a lower density of information than the textbook for grade 4. However, the analysis of compound words shows that the assignment descriptions for grade 3 contain a larger proportion of compounds; unlike the other factors, this does not suggest a textual progression from grade 3 to grade 4. Despite this discrepant result, one can observe a linguistic progression between the assignment descriptions in the textbooks based on the other categories, and from the factors that have been studied it may be assumed that the assignment descriptions in the textbook for grade 4 are at a higher level of linguistic difficulty. / Studiens syfte är att jämföra uppgiftsformuleringar i två läroböcker i svenska med fokus på deras språkliga svårighetsnivå. Läroböckerna är avsedda för årskurs 3 respektive årskurs 4. Jämförelsen sker utifrån faktorer som påverkar en texts svårighetsgrad och de analyskategorier som studien baseras på är ordklasser, ordlängd, sammansatta ord, meningslängd, nominalkvot och läsbarhetsindex. Studiens resultat tyder på att uppgiftsformuleringarna i årskurs 4 har en textuellt högre svårighetsnivå i fem av sex analyskategorier eftersom uppgiftsformuleringarna i årskurs 3 kan upplevas mer talspråkliga, har ett lägre läsbarhetsindex samt har en lägre informationstäthet jämfört med läroboken för årskurs 4. Dock visar analysen av sammansatta ord att uppgiftsformuleringarna för årskurs 3 innehåller en större andel sammansatta ord, vilket till skillnad från de övriga faktorerna inte talar för en textuell progression från årskurs 3 till årskurs 4. Trots det avvikande resultatet kan en språklig progression mellan uppgiftsformuleringarna i läroböckerna konstateras utifrån de övriga kategorierna och det kan, utifrån de faktorer som undersökts, antas att uppgiftsformuleringarna i läroboken för årskurs 4 har en högre språklig svårighetsnivå.

There are no guidelines regarding how companies should design status updates on Facebook which attain good readability and engage the readers. Half the Swedish population are Facebook-users, but companies have yet to publish comprehensible messages on Facebook which effectively include the recipients. Inclusion is not just a matter of accessibility, but also of readability. Therefore, I studied how status updates should be designed on Facebook in order to increase the readability and to engage the readers. My target group is 22-32 year olds, since the company I worked with wanted to target this group. I conducted my research through literature studies, interviews with the client, analysis of past status updates, questioned an expert in social media, and organized a group interview with the target group. My research shows that status updates should contain information that is topical, informative and relevant to the target group. However, status updates should not contain too much information, since messages that are saturated with information are difficult for the audience to interact with. Status updates should be written seriously and give the readers an added value. The message should contain 50-250 characters. If the audience is unfamiliar with the subject in the status update, a longer message may be necessary. Nonetheless, status updates should not exceed 400 characters, as the readers will then lose interest. Status updates should be written in a simple and informal language. Communication on Facebook requires specific guidelines, since social media differs from traditional media. The texts published here must be specifically adapted to Facebook. This requires an increased understanding of the demands Facebook as a medium puts on texts published on this social utility. Further research could therefore explore the way in which people read on Facebook, for example by using eye-tracking cameras. / Det saknas riktlinjer för hur företag ska utforma läsbara statusuppdateringar på Facebook som engagerar läsarna. För att företag ska kunna inkludera sina mottagare kan de inte förlita sig på Facebooks fysiska tillgänglighet. Informationen som företag publicerar på Facebook måste också göras begriplig för läsarna. Därför studerade jag hur statusuppdateringar bör utformas på Facebook för att få hög läsbarhet och för att engagera läsarna. Min målgrupp är 22-32-åringar, eftersom företaget jag arbetade mot ville nå ut till denna grupp. Genom litteraturstudier, intervjuer med uppdragsgivaren, analys av tidigare statusuppdateringar, att ställa frågor till en expert på sociala medier samt genom en gruppintervju med målgruppen kom jag fram till mitt resultat. Min undersökning visar att innehållet i en statusuppdatering ska vara aktuellt, informativt och relevant för målgruppen. Statusuppdateringar får inte vara för uttömmande. De ska vara seriösa och ge läsaren ett mervärde. En statusuppdatering bör omfatta 50-250 tecken. Om läsarens är obekant med ämnet i uppdateringen kan den även vara längre. Statusuppdateringar bör dock inte överstiga 400 tecken, eftersom läsaren förlorar intresset då. Språket i en statusuppdatering får vara ledigt, men måste vara tydligt. Särskilda riktlinjer behövs för kommunikation på Facebook, eftersom sociala medier fungerar annorlunda än traditionella medier. De texter som publiceras på Facebook måste anpassas för Facebook. Därför krävs en bättre förståelse för de krav Facebook som medium ställer på texterna som publiceras där. Vidare forskning kunde därför studera hur människor läser på Facebook, exempelvis med hjälp av ögonrörelsekamera.

This thesis explores the possibility of assessing the degree of readability of writtenSwedish using machine learning. An application using four levels of linguistic analysishas been implemented and tested with four different established algorithmsfor machine learning. The new approach has then been compared to establishedreadability metrics for Swedish. The results indicate that the new method workssignificantly better for readability classification of both sentences and documents.The system has also been tested with so called soft classification which returns aprobability for the degree of readability of a given text. This probability can thenbe used to rank texts according to probable degree of readability. / Detta examensarbete utforskar möjligheterna att bedöma svenska texters läsbarhet med hjälp av maskininlärning. Ett system som använder fyra nivåer av lingvistisk analys har implementerats och testats med fyra olika etablerade algoritmer för maskininlärning. Det nya angreppssättet har sedan jämförts med etablerade läsbarhetsmått för svenska. Resultaten visar att den nya metoden fungerar markant bättre för läsbarhetsklassning av både meningar och hela dokument. Systemet har också testats med så kallad mjuk klassificering som ger ett sannolikhetsvärde för en given texts läsbarhetsgrad. Detta sannolikhetsvärde kan användas för rangordna texter baserad på sannolik läsbarhetsgrad.

The use for a readability classification model is mainly as an integrated part of an information retrieval system. By matching the user's demands of readability to the documents with the corresponding readability, the classification model can further improve the results of, for example, a search engine. This thesis presents a new solution for classification into readability levels for Swedish. The results from the thesis are a number of classification models. The models were induced by training a Support Vector Machines classifier on features that are established by previous research as good measurements of readability. The features were extracted from a corpus annotated with three readability levels. Natural Language Processing tools for tagging and parsing were used to analyze the corpus and enable the extraction of the features from the corpus. Empirical testings of different feature combinations were performed to optimize the classification model. The classification models render a good and stable classification. The best model obtained a precision score of 90.21\% and a recall score of 89.56\% on the test-set, which is equal to a F-score of 89.88. / Uppsatsen beskriver utvecklandet av en klassificeringsmodell för Svenska texter beroende på dess läsbarhet. Användningsområdet för en läsbaretsklassificeringsmodell är främst inom informationssökningssystem. Modellen kan öka träffsäkerheten på de dokument som anses relevanta av en sökmotor genom att matcha användarens krav på läsbarhet med de indexerade dokumentens läsbarhet. Resultatet av uppsatsen är ett antal modeller för klassificering av text beroende på läsbarhet. Modellerna har tagits fram genom att träna upp en Support Vector Machines klassificerare, på ett antal särdrag som av tidigare forskning har fastslagits vara goda mått på läsbarhet. Särdragen extraherades från en korpus som är annoterad med tre läsbarhetsnivåer. Språkteknologiska verktyg för taggning och parsning användes för att möjliggöra extraktionen av särdragen. Särdragen utvärderades empiriskt i olika särdragskombinationer för att optimera modellerna. Modellerna testades och utvärderades med goda resultat. Den bästa modellen hade en precision på 90,21 och en recall på 89,56, detta ger en F-score som är 89,88. Uppsatsen presenterar förslag på vidareutveckling samt potentiella användningsområden.

Le redéploiement des réseaux de tramways en France a modifié considérablement les espaces publics et la façon dont ils sont pratiqués. Au-delà de l’image de développement urbain durable portée par le tramway, la question des difficultés d’usage de ces espaces est peu investiguée. Ce travail s’appuie principalement sur la mise en lien des analyses des pratiques des espaces publics réaménagés pour le tramway (observations in situ, interviews d’usager, analyses des accidents), avec celles des processus de conception de ces espaces (entretiens réalisés avec les différents acteurs des projets de tramway étudiés, révélant les enjeux, les choix, les conflits, les contraintes et les compromis ayant pesé dans l’aménagement de ces espaces). Les villes de Montpellier, Marseille et Nice sont les trois terrains d’étude sur lesquels ont porté ces investigations. Les résultats de cette thèse montrent d’une part que l’insertion de tramways modernes dans les villes françaises pose certains problèmes de complication des espaces publics. Ces complications, liées à la restructuration des espaces publics pour le tramway, engendrent des difficultés d’usage et des problèmes de sécurité. Ils montrent d’autre part que les processus de conception jouent un rôle dans la genèse de ces problèmes. Cette thèse établit ainsi des liens particuliers entre complexité des processus de conception (au sens de la pensée complexe) et complication des espaces publics. / The reintroduction of tram networks in France has considerably changed public spaces and the way citizens use them. Above and beyond the image of sustainable urban development conveyed by trams, the question of the difficulties encountered by the users of these spaces has not been studied much. This work is mainly based on the coordination of the analysis of the uses of these re-designed public spaces (through observations, interviews of users and accident studies) and the analysis of the conditions and processes involved in the design of these spaces (mainly based on interviews with the actors of these tram projects, to identify the choices made, compromises accepted, and conflicts and constraints at work that determine the layout of these spaces). The cities of Montpellier, Marseille and Nice are the three fields of study on which the demonstration of this thesis is based. On the one hand, the results of this research show that the insertion of tram tends to complicate the public spaces. These complications related to the restructuring of public spaces for the tram create difficulties of use and safety concerns. On the other hand, this research shows to what extent the complexity of the design processes plays a role in the genesis of these problems. This thesis thus establishes particular links between complex design processes (in the sense of “complex thought”) and complicated public spaces.

Hypotheses on the efficiency of evidence-based printed materials can be directed by health communication concepts. These concepts can provide a general framework that goes beyond the traditional vulgarization point of view: instead, it points towards a strategy to obtain health outcomes and provoke behavior change, from a disease prevention, management and health promotion perspective. The present study proposes a comprehensive framework based on concepts from health risk communication, Tarde's theory of social values, usability, readability and plain language. Using the mapping approach, an evaluation grid was applied to printed evidence-based materials with proven effectiveness, in order to reveal the underlying strategy and isolate the characteristics of effective materials. The results allowed us to define two types of printed evidence-based materials, according to the robustness of the evidence they contain and the target audience. It was also possible to identify indicators of notions that are translated into operationalized items, frequent in those materials that might be responsible for their efficiency: clear purpose of the documents, limited scope, learning motivation and correspondence to the logic, experience and language of readers. Effectiveness of printed evidence-based materials could also be correlated to numeracy, objectiveness, standard definitions, constant timeframes and denominators, risks enumerated in order of importance, effective response, and high degree of threat, urgency, novelty and visibility of the disease. It was also possible to identify some missing communication concepts: cultural diversity, narrative, increased easiness of procedures and aesthetic advantage for the patient. In the process of work, the theory of social values emerged as a dynamic component that can bring together and explain many concepts, as well as physician’s acceptance of the guidelines. Value in terms of usefulness and truth plays a major role in cognitive appreciation of the documents. This concept gives a strategic meaning to the whole work and allows us to better understand attitude and behavior change.

This thesis deals with the analysis of the Branding Strategy, Strategic Brand Management and Innovation opportunities of the company OP papírna, s.r.o., producing thinprint paper which is applied as patient information leaflet in pharmaceutical industry for both the Czech and foreign markets. Author of the thesis studies creation and success of the OP brands, current Branding Strategy, following technical service and awareness of the OP products in comparison with the competition. Author also analyzed current condition of the firm using MOST analysis, market development using PESTE analysis and innovative opportunities for the company and SWOT analysis. In that case he answered beforehand-asked questions.

An effective visualization can often give an insight into data that would otherwise be difficult to analyze. The company Assedon aims to make data understandable to their clients by using data visualization in an interactive user interface. The goal of this study was to create an interactive visual representation of data from the Swedish Public Employment Service with the use of dynamically created digital graphs that are considered credible and beneficial for data perception. Moreover, the goal was to study data perception of the digitally displayed and interactive graphs. The study was conducted by interviewing 19 people with different backgrounds, using a combination of a qualitative and a quantitative interview technique. The interviewees were shown three different designs of a graph type, and rated the graph as well as commented on the graph. The results of this study indicated that a graph is more likely to be perceived as credible if it looks modern and professional. This also means that the design of the graphs needs more attention than people might normally appreciate. The perception of data presented in digitally displayed graphs will be affected by several factors, but most prominently the choice of color can either enhance the perception or confuse. Lastly, interaction with the data will benefit the perception and create another dimension of the data, but only to a certain extent. If the graph is too difficult to evaluate, the purpose of the graph is lost and the interaction becomes a necessity instead of an asset. / En graf kan ge insikt i data som annars är svår att analysera. It-företaget Assedons mål är att konvertera data till digitala interaktiva lösningar som gör data förståelig för deras klienter. Målet med denna studie var att skapa en interaktiv visuell representation av Arbetsförmedlingens data i ett användarvänligt gränssnitt. Detta gjordes genom att skapa digitala grafer som anses trovärdiga och fördelaktiga för datauppfattningen. Målet var även att undersöka hur datauppfattningen av digitala grafer påverkades av interaktion med dessa grafer. Studien utfördes genom att intervjua 19 personer från olika bakgrunder med användning av kvalitativa och kvantitativa intervjutekniker. Deltagarna i studien visades tre olika interaktiva designer av en graf typ och betygsatte dessa samt kommenterade. Resultaten visade att en digital graf är mer sannolik att uppfattas som trovärdig om den ser modern och professionell ut. Datauppfattningen påverkades av flera faktorer, främst färgvalen som kan förtydliga data, men även förvirra läsaren. Avslutningsvis, så kan interaktion erbjuda en ytterligare dimension till grafer och därmed förbättra förståelsen av data. Dock till en viss gräns, är grafen för svår att evaluera utan tillgång till interaktionen så förloras syftet med grafen och interaktionen blir en nödvändighet istället för en tillgång.

Suffering from a hearing impairment or deafness has major consequences on the individual's social life. Today, there exist various aids, but there are some challenges with these, like availability, reliability and high cognitive load when the user trying to focus on both the aid and the surrounding context. To overcome these challenges, one potential solution could make use of a combination of Augmented Reality (AR) and speech-to-text systems, where speech is converted into text that is then presented in AR glasses. However, in AR, one crucial problem is the legibility and readability of text under different environmental conditions. Moreover, different types of AR-glasses have different usage characteristics, which implies that a certain type of glasses might be more suitable for the proposed system than others. For speech-to-text systems, it is necessary to consider factors such as accuracy, latency and robustness when used in different acoustic environments and with different speech audio.  In this master thesis, two different AR-glasses are being evaluated based on the different characteristics of the glasses, such as optical, visual and ergonomic. Moreover, user tests are conducted with 23 normal hearing individuals to evaluate the legibility and readability of text under different environmental contexts. Due to the pandemic, it was not possible to conduct the tests with hearing impaired individuals. Finally, a literature review is performed on speech-to-text systems available on the Swedish market.   The results indicate that the legibility and readability are affected by several factors, such as ambient illuminance, background properties and also how the text is presented with respect to polarity, opacity, size and number of lines. Moreover, the characteristics of the glasses impact the user experience, but which glasses are preferable depends on the individual's preferences.   For the choice of a speech-to-text system, four speech-to-text APIs available on the Swedish market were identified. Based on our research, Google Cloud Speech API is recommended for the proposed system. However, a more extensive evaluation of these systems would be required to determine this. / Speech-to-Text System using Augmented Reality for People with Hearing Deficits

The United States dedicates greater than 17% of its gross national product to healthcare. This percentage is expected to go up to 20% by 2018. Despite the high cost of care, the health care system remains inefficient and ineffective. Barriers include reduced access to care related to low health literacy. Complicating low health literacy is the high readability score of patient education materials. The high readability score is in part due to tools that are not standardized and measure different aspects of education materials creating varying readability scores. The purpose of this quality improvement project was to adopt a tool, the Clear Communication Index, which is evidence-based and standardized using the federal Plain Language Guidelines, to assess the reading score of educational materials in a 62-bed acute long-term care facility. The plan, do, study, and act model was used as a translational framework to guide this project, and the theory of goal attainment served as the theoretical support for the project. The Clear Communication Index worksheet was used to assess the readability of documents given to patients at discharge. Any score below 90% was considered difficult to understand and required revision. One month after implementation, patient satisfaction scores on 2 metrics showed improvement. The score for 'When I left the hospital, I clearly understood the purpose for taking each of my medications?' increased from 58.2% to 90.7%. The 2nd patient satisfaction survey metric, 'During this hospital stay, did you get information in writing about what symptoms or health problems to look out for after you left the hospital?,' increased from 73.1% to 83.3%. The results may promote social change by providing equal care access to all through readable educational materials.