Orientador: José Antonio Dell'Aqua Junior / Resumo: Entre as vantagens da criopreservação seminal, destacam-se a otimização do uso de garanhões com comprovada superioridade genética, pela possibilidade do armazenamento de sêmen mesmo fora da estação de monta e a quebra das barreiras geográficas, que torna possível a remessa deste material para qualquer parte do mundo. Contudo, o processo de congelação de sêmen causa danos à célula espermática, sendo a peroxidação lipídica e o estresse oxidativo, ocasionada pela produção anormal de espécies reativas de oxigênio (EROs), as principais injúrias. Desta maneira, para se obter uma melhor qualidade seminal após a descongelação, é necessário adicionar aos diluentes seminais elementos que desempenhem função antioxidante, visando conter o aumento dos níveis dos agentes oxidantes. Coenzima Q10 (CoQ10) é um agente lipossolúvel promotor de energia, tendo como principal função transportar prótons e elétrons no processo de síntese de ATP na membrana mitocondrial interna, através da cadeia de transporte de elétrons. Ainda, a CoQ10 atua como um potente antioxidante em diversos sistemas biológicos, tais como, lipoproteínas e membranas, protegendo-os contra a oxidação, inibindo a formação de hidroperóxidos e, consequentemente, prevenindo a peroxidação lipídica. Desta forma, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a ação da coenzima Q10 (CoQ10) no espermatozoide de garanhões resistentes (RC) e sensíveis (SC) a congelação. Cada ejaculado (n=24) foi dividido em nove tratamentos e submetido à congelação,... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Doutor

Master of Science / Department of Grain Science and Industry / Yonghui Li / Antioxidants are widely used in food industries to delay lipid oxidation and prevent oxidative deterioration. In recent years, growing interests in developing safe and efficient antioxidants from natural sources due to the health-related risks associated with synthetic antioxidants. Recently, peptide antioxidants have drawn growing interests as since proteins are a macronutrient with various functionalities and high consumer acceptability. A lot of dietary proteins have been validated for their antioxidant potentials especially those obtained from animal proteins, nuts and pulses. Relatively less information is available on characterizing the antioxidant profile of cereal protein, and even less for sorghum protein. Sorghum is the fifth largest crop worldwide and is the third in United States. U.S. is leading in global sorghum production and distribution, and the state of Kansas is producing nearly half of U.S. sorghum. Currently, about one third of the U.S. sorghum is being used for ethanol production, resulting in more than 450 kilotons of by-products (e.g., DDGS) annually, which were often discarded or underutilized. DDGS is a premium protein source (~ 30% protein) that could be potentially modified into value-added products such as peptide antioxidants. In this study, relevant literatures detailing the extraction of cereal proteins, enzymatic hydrolysis of proteins, purification and characterization of hydrolysates, and evaluation of antioxidant profiles were extensively reviewed in Chapter 1. As preliminary experiments, sorghum kafirin protein was extracted from defatted sorghum white flour and hydrolyzed by 10 different types of enzymes from microbial, plant and animal sources. Hydrolysates prepared with Neutrase, Alcalase, and Papain displayed the most promising antioxidant activities as well as total protein recovery were primarily selected and investigated in depth described in Chapter 2, Chapter 3, and Chapter 4. The reaction conditions including substrate content, enzyme-to-substrate ratio, and hydrolysis time are critical parameters in producing peptides with desired activity and consistency, were therefore examined and optimized for each case of kafirin hydrolysates. The antioxidant capacity of the resulting hydrolysates was measured for antioxidant capacity through in vitro assays (DPPH, ABTS, ORAC, reducing power, and metal chelating) and then demonstrated in model systems (oil-in-water emulsion and ground meat). The fractions of hydrolysates possessing strongest activities were further fractionated by gel filtration and HPLC. Peaks representing the largest areas from HPLC were identified for major sequences by MALDI-TOF-MS. The experiment results indicated that all the three selected fractions of kafirin hydrolysates revealed excellent inhibition effects against oil and fat oxidations, which could be employed as tools to predict their performances in real food products. In addition, the structure studies showed that medium-sized hydrolysates of Neutrase (3 – 10 kDa) and Alcalase (5 – 10 kDa), and small-sized hydrolysates of Papain (1 – 3 kDa) exhibited relatively stronger activities. This study provided a workable processing method and critical reaction parameters for the production of peptide antioxidants from sorghum protein. The experiment results revealed that the sorghum peptide antioxidant could act through multiple mechanisms including free radical scavenging, metal ion chelation, hydrogen donating, and forming physical barriers to minimize the contact of oxidative agents to targets. These antioxidative peptides are a promising ingredient that can be potentially incorporated to food and feed products as alternatives to synthetic antioxidants or synergetic elements to nonpeptic antioxidants for protection of susceptible food ingredients. This study also made a positive impact to sorghum ethanol industry by guiding the conversion of sorghum protein-rich by-products into value-added antioxidant products as an additional revenue stream.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD (Biotechnology) / High temperature stress is synonymous with the attenuation of plant growth, metabolism and eventually death resulting in major loss of crop productivity worldwide. Part of the metabolic perturbations associated with heat stress leads to the excessive formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which have highly deleterious effects on cellular homeostasis. Naturally, through millions of years of evolution and adjustment, plants have developed antioxidant enzymes that neutralize harmful ROS species offering a protective role in the annulment of oxidative damage in response to high temperature. The aim of this study was to measure the activity of several antioxidant enzymes in response to heat stress in Zea mays.

Chronic pancreatitis (CP) is characterised by chronic, frequent, disabling abdominal pain. It often leads to exocrine and endocrine insufficiency resulting in malabsorption and diabetes mellitus respectively. The incidence of CP is 5-10 per 100,000 population worldwide and is on the rise in UK. Alcohol (70%) is the commonest aetiologic cause, idiopathic (20%) and others (10%) being second and third respectively. There are various medical and surgical treatment options available depending on clinical characteristics and the stage of disease. In spite of wide spectrum of therapeutic options, pain control still remains a challenging problem to the clinicians. Surgical treatments for chronic pancreatitis, broadly classified into resectional and drainage procedures, may offer relief of symptoms. These surgeries are associated with severe morbidity and high mortality. In addition, our comprehensive review of surgery in chronic pancreatitis demonstrated lack of criteria for baseline assessment of patients with CP; resulting in lack of standardization, variation in indication and comparability in published literature on surgical treatment of chronic pancreatitis. These factors have collectively forced the medical fraternity to look for other non or minimally invasive options. Oxidative stress and deficiency of anti-oxidants have long been implicated in pathogenesis of CP. Our review of literature on oxidative stress and antioxidants has highlighted the shortcomings and inadequacies from the previously published reports. These reports were underpowered and not all included patients had chronic pancreatitis. This in turn led us to propose a well designed randomised, double blind, placebo controlled trial of antioxidant therapy in CP. Considering the loss of time and productivity, it is necessary to undertake Qol as an outcome measure in any intervention related to CP. Our study assessed the suitability and feasibility of validated quality of life indices in patients with painful chronic pancreatitis. After correction for disease duration, the outcome of contemporary quality of life assessments showed that patients with CP taking Antox had better scores than controls. Cytokines, a group of proteins and glycoproteins that act in regulation of immunity, inflammation and haematopoiesis are implicated in oxidative stress related pathogenesis of chronic pancreatitis. They are broadly classed as pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory. There have been few experimental studies suggesting that antioxidants ameliorate cytokine response in chronic pancreatitis. However our study has failed to demonstrate a significant effect on cytokine levels after six months of antioxidant therapy. Similarly, on the clinical front, a randomised, double blind placebo controlled study (referred to as ANTICIPATE TRIAL) has shown no benefit of antioxidant therapy in painful chronic pancreatitis, irrespective of age, gender, aetiology or operative intervention. So we are afraid to say that until we discover any novel treatment in management of intractable painful chronic pancreatitis, surgery and interventional endoscopy might be the only viable options.

A reprodução é capaz de alterar muitos parâmetros relacionados à fisiologia, ao comportamento e à morfologia em vertebrados machos. Trabalhos apresentam relação entre reprodução ou envelhecimento com estresse oxidativo, não havendo trabalho relacionando estresse oxidativo, reprodução e envelhecimento simultaneamente em mamíferos. Para avaliar o estresse oxidativo no encéfalo de ratos machos decorrente da atividade reprodutiva e ao longo do envelhecimento (3, 6, 12 e 24 meses) comparado a animais sem atividade reprodutiva (n = 10 por grupo e por idade), avaliou-se a atividade de enzimas antioxidantes (catalase, glutationa peroxidase, superóxido dismutase, glutationa Stransferase); os níveis de moléculas antioxidantes (glutationa oxidada e reduzida, vitamina C e E); os marcadores de dano oxidativo (peroxidação lipídica, carbonilação de proteínas, nitritos e nitratos), bem como o status oxidante total e a atividade da enzima metabólica aconitase no encéfalo, e os níveis de testosterona e estradiol no soro. ANOVA, seguido do post hoc de Tukey, foi utilizado para avaliar a diferença estatística entre os grupos. Correlação de Spearman e Regressão Linear (método stepwise) foram utilizadas para avaliar alterações relacionadas entre os parâmetros. Os animais machos com atividade reprodutiva apresentaram elevada concentração de testosterona e atividade da aconitase, sugerindo um metabolismo mais elevado que os sem atividade reprodutiva. A atividade das enzimas antioxidantes e a quantidade de moléculas antioxidantes também foram mais elevadas em diversos grupos de animais reprodutores, mas o dano oxidativo mais elevado também foi observado nesses grupos de animais reprodutores. Alterações relacionadas ao envelhecimento foram observadas em ambos os grupos, não havendo padrão. Observou-se elevada atividade das enzimas antioxidantes, bem como maiores danos, no grupo dos animais reprodutores de 6 meses. Nos animais mais velhos (24 meses), observam-se similares níveis dos marcadores de dano oxidativo, atividade de algumas enzimas antioxidantes e de moléculas antioxidantes entre os grupos. Do complexo emaranhado de correlações e regressões observado nesse sistema, destaca-se a influência do envelhecimento nos níveis de testosterona, nitritos e nitratos e na atividade das enzimas aconitase, catalase e glutationa Stransferase (coeficiente padronizado B = 0,53; 0,31; 0,39; 0,78 e 0,23, respectivamente). Os níveis de testosterona se correlacionaram positivamente com diversos parâmetros: catalase 73%, superóxido dismutase 71%, peroxidação lipídica 43%, nitritos e nitratos 50%, aconitase 46% e aconitase reativada 47%. Sugere-se que a atividade reprodutiva eleva o metabolismo, tanto por estímulo hormonal quanto por outras alterações, e.g. alteração comportamental, levando a elevada produção de espécies reativas, causando dano oxidativo e elevando a atividade e a quantidade das defesas antioxidantes. Esses resultados auxiliam na compreensão das alterações causadas pela reprodução relacionadas ao envelhecimento em nível de estresse oxidativo, e sugere bases para explicar os custos relacionados à reprodução. / Reproduction causes changes in male vertebrates, including morphological, behavioral, and physiological alterations. Reproduction and aging may alter oxidative stress, but there is no research concerning oxidative stress and reproduction during aging in mammals. We performed a comprehensive study to examine oxidative stress in the brains of male rats with (experienced) or without (naïve) reproductive activity during aging (3, 6, 12, and 24 months of age). Oxidative stress was assessed by measuring the antioxidant enzymes activity (catalase, glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione S-transferase), the amount of non-enzymatic compounds (reduced and oxidized glutathione, vitamin C and E), the levels of oxidative damage markers (lipid peroxidation, protein carbonylation, nitrite and nitrate) as well as total oxidant status, and the aconitase metabolic enzyme activity in brain, and the levels of testosterone and estradiol in serum. ANOVA, followed by Tukey post hoc, was used to analyze statistical differences among groups. Spearman Correlation and Linear Regression (stepwise method) were used to analyze relation among parameters. Reproductively active animals exhibited increased testosterone levels and aconitase activity, suggesting an increased metabolism. Despite the Increased antioxidant enzyme activities and increased levels of antioxidant compounds were observed, damage to biomolecules was also observed in experienced rats. During aging changes in oxidative stress were observed in all groups, but no pattern was observed. We found higher activities of antioxidant enzymes, higher amounts of antioxidants, contrasting with higher damage at six months of age between experienced than naïve animals. Some similarities were found in antioxidant activities and levels, and damage between the groups at twenty-four months of age. Correlations and regressions show a very complex web of interactions among the parameters. Aging exerted influence in testosterone, nitrites and nitrates levels, in the aconitase, catalase, and glutathione Stransferase activities (adjusted B value of = -0.53; -0.31; - 0.39; -0.78; and 0.23, respectively). Testosterone levels positively correlated with: catalase 73%, superoxide dismutase 71%, lipid peroxidation 43%, nitrites and nitrates 50%, aconitase 46%, and reactivated aconitase 47%. We suggest that reproductive activity increases metabolism, by hormonal stimuli as by others factors, e.g. behavioral change, and this changes lead to increased production of reactive species, which lead to oxidative damage and increases the antioxidant enzymes activity and non-enzymatic amount. These results add comprehensive data regarding changes in oxidative stress during aging, and suggest an explanation for the costs of reproduction.

A demanda por antioxidantes naturais vem aumentando devido à toxicidade de alguns antioxidantes sintéticos. Estudos vêm identificando antioxidantes de origem natural, como a proteína da soja, que é capaz de contribuir na melhoria de propriedades funcionais e biológicas de alimentos. A hidrólise enzimática da proteína de soja aumenta sua atividade antioxidante, assim como a capacidade emulsificante e a capacidade de formação de espuma. O objetivo deste trabalho foi o estudo da hidrólise da proteína de soja através de uma protease produzida por Chryseobacterium sp., a verificação da capacidade antioxidante e aplicação do hidrolisado em diferentes tipos de carnes para evitar a oxidação lipídica. A eficácia da hidrólise foi determinada através da proteína solúvel utilizando o método de Folin enquanto que a atividade antioxidante foi avaliada pelos métodos referentes à captura do radical DPPH e ABTS. Os hidrolisados foram adicionados em carne de porco e peixe e foi verificada a inibição da oxidação lipídica. A influência de três parâmetros (temperatura, pH, relação enzima/substrato) na hidrólise foi estudada através um experimento fatorial 23 . Como respostas foram avaliadas a atividade antioxidante (DPPH e ABTS), atividade quelante de ferro, proteína solúvel, capacidade de formação de espuma e capacidade emulsificante. Observou-se um aumento na concentração de proteína solúvel em função do tempo, sendo que os hidrolisados foram capazes de inibir tanto o radical DPPH quanto o ABTS. Os hidrolisados inibiram em parte a oxidação lipídica em carne suína e peixe. Ainda foi possível concluir que dependendo da finalidade para que se deseja o hidrolisado, diferentes condições devem ser utilizadas. Os resultados demonstram uma potencial aplicação da protease microbiana para gerar hidrolisados antioxidantes da proteína de soja. / The demand for natural antioxidants has been increasing due to the toxicity of some synthetic antioxidants. Studies have identified naturally occurring antioxidants, such as soy protein, which can contribute to improve functional and biological properties of food. Enzymatic hydrolysis of soy protein increases its antioxidant activity, as well as emulsifying capacity and foaming capacity. The purpose of this work was to study the hydrolysis of soy protein, verifying the antioxidant capacity, application of the hydrolysate in different types of meat and optimization of hydrolysis. The efficiency of hydrolysis was determined by the soluble protein by the method of Folin while the antioxidant activity was evaluated by the methods related to the capture of the radical DPPH and ABTS. The hydrolysates were added to pork and fish and the extent of lipid oxidation was determined by TBARS. In optimizing of the hydrolysis three parameters were varied (T, pH, enzyme substrate), it was applied to a surface response methodology for conducting trials using a 23 factorial experiment. As answers were evaluated antioxidant activity (DPPH and ABTS), iron chelating activity, Lowry, foaming capacity and emulsifying capacity. There was an increase in soluble protein concentration versus time, and the hydrolysates were able to inhibit both the ABTS and the DPPH radical. The hydrolysates were able of inhibit lipid oxidation in pork and fish. Was still possible to conclude that depending on the finality that will be given to hydrolysates different treatment conditions should be used. The results demonstrate a significant potential for application of microbial protease to generate antioxidants of hydrolyzed soy protein.

SANTOS, Rebeca Cruz dos. Anacardato de cálcio como fonte de ácido anacárdico na alimentação de codornas japonesas em postura. 2014. 54 f. : Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal do Ceará, Centro de Ciências Agrárias, Departamento de Zootecnia, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Zootecnia, Fortaleza-CE, 2014. / Submitted by guaracy araujo (guaraa3355@gmail.com) on 2016-08-10T19:21:52Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2014_dis_rcsantos.pdf: 595786 bytes, checksum: 1d679001deec7f8bb431815a2e104820 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Nádja Goes (nmoraissoares@gmail.com) on 2016-08-12T12:15:22Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2014_dis_rcsantos.pdf: 595786 bytes, checksum: 1d679001deec7f8bb431815a2e104820 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-12T12:15:22Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2014_dis_rcsantos.pdf: 595786 bytes, checksum: 1d679001deec7f8bb431815a2e104820 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014 / The aim of the study was to evaluate the effects of adding calcium anacardate as source of anacardic acid in Japanese laying quails diets on performance and egg quality parameters. A total of 252 Japanese laying quails with 22 weeks of age were used, distributed in completely randomized design, with six treatments and six replications of seven broilers each. The treatments used were: T1 - diet without growth promoter (PC); T2 - diet with growth promoter; T3, T4, T5 and T6 - diets without growth promoter and addition of 0,25; 0,50; 0,75 and 1,0% of calcium anacardate (AC), respectively. The treatments did not affect feed intake, laying percentage, egg weight, egg mass, feed conversion and quality of the eggs: yolk, albumen and shell percentage, Haugh unit, specific gravity, shell thickness and yolk color. The calcium anacardate as source of anacardic acid, when added up to 1% in the diet, does not affect the performance and quality of the eggs of Japanese laying quails. / Objetivou-se avaliar os efeitos da adição do anacardato de cálcio como fonte de ácido anacárdico na ração de codornas japonesas em postura quanto ao desempenho e parâmetros de qualidade dos ovos. Foram utilizadas 252 codornas japonesas em fase de postura com 22 semanas de idade, distribuídas em delineamento inteiramente casualizado com seis tratamentos e seis repetições de sete aves. Os tratamentos aplicados foram: T1 - ração sem promotor de crescimento (PC); T2 - ração com promotor de crescimento; T3, T4, T5 e T6 - rações sem promotor de crescimento e adição de 0,25; 0,50; 0,75 e 1,0% de anacardato de cálcio (AC), respectivamente. Os tratamentos não influenciaram o consumo de ração, percentagem de postura, peso do ovo, massa de ovo, conversão alimentar e a qualidade dos ovos: percentagem de gema, albúmen e casca, unidade Haugh, densidade específica, espessura da casca e cor da gema. O anacardato de cálcio como fonte de ácido anacárdico, quando adicionado até 1% na ração não influencia o desempenho e qualidade dos ovos de codornas japonesas.

Orientador: José Roberto Sartori / Resumo: A utilização de produtos fitogênicos tem aumentado na avicultura industrial, buscando alternativas à utilização de antibióticos e, dentre os produtos utilizados, encontrase o óleo da semente de maracujá (OSM). Dessa forma, foram realizados três estudos com objetivo de avaliar comportamento, desempenho, saúde e qualidade de carne de frangos de corte alimentados com o OSM. Estudo I - foram utilizados 70 frangos de corte machos, Cobb, com 21 dias de idade, distribuídos em gaiolas de metabolismo, em um delineamento inteiramente casualizado, com dois tratamentos, sete repetições e cinco aves por unidade experimental. Para determinar a energia metabolizável do OSM foi utilizado o método de coleta total de excretas. Os tratamentos foram: ração referência e ração com 10% de substituição por OSM. A energia bruta do OSM foi de 9.837kcal e 9.378 kcal/kg de EMA. Estudo II - foram utilizados 1.680 frangos de corte, Cobb, machos, criados de 1 a 42 dias de idade em galpão climatizado com ventilação negativa, distribuídos em um delineamento inteiramente casualizado, com sete tratamentos: controle positivo e negativo (com e sem antibiótico, respectivamente) e cinco níveis de inclusão de OSM (0,10; 0,20; 0,30; 0,40 e 0,50%) com oito repetições. Não foi observada diferença para o desempenho das aves no período de 1 a 21 dias, já para o período de 1 a 42 dias houve melhora linear para conversão alimentar com a inclusão do OSM. Não foi encontrada diferença para rendimento de carcaça e cortes, foi... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Doutor

Cumarinas são metabólitos secundários de plantas encontrados majoritariamente nas espécies das famílias Asteraceae, Rutaceae e Umbeliferae. Quimicamente, são compostos fenólicos, formados pela fusão de um benzeno e de um anel α-pirona, chamados de benzopironas. Elas apresentam diversas propriedades farmacológicas, associadas com baixa toxicidade. Nosso grupo de pesquisa sintetiza cumarinas pela reação de Pechmann, que ocorre através da condensação de um fenol com um β-cetoéster, na presença de um ácido de Bronsted ou Lewis. Um dos trabalhos mais recentes foi a síntese de 6-metil-4-clorometilcumarinas com um IC50 menor do que 1,6 μM para atividade antitripanocida. Em outro trabalho, um grupo de compostos de híbridos cumarina-triazol foi sintetizado e apresentou potencial atividade como agente antitumoral. Baseado nesses trabalhos, foi planejado a síntese de análogos da 6-metil-4-clorometilcumarina via condensação de Pechmann, com diferentes substituintes na posição 6, obtidos através das reações de click chemistry, no intuito de aumentar a atividade antioxidante desses compostos. Assim, para obter esses compostos, foi realizada uma condensação de Pechmann com hidroquinona e 4-cloroacetoacetato de etila. Após, uma eterificação de Williamson com brometo de propargila foi feita. Finalmente, a reação de click chemistry foi realizada sob irradiação de micro-ondas com diversas azidas previamente sintetizadas no laboratório, conduzindo à obtenção de diversos análogos da 6-metil-clorometilcumarina que foram avaliados quanto a viabilidade celular através ensaio do MTT (brometo de 3-(4,5-dimetiltiazol-2-il)-2,5-difeniltetrazólio). Também foi testada a sua capacidade antioxidante pelo método do DCFH-DA (diacetato de 2’,7’ –diidroclorofluoresceína). Dessa maneira, sob as condições reacionais utilizadas neste trabalho, foi possível sintetizar 12 compostos inéditos com rendimentos entre 9 e 61%. Os ensaios biológicos preliminares indicaram que os compostos sintetizados apresentam potencial atividade antioxidante e algumas moléculas tiveram potencialidade como agente citotóxico. / Coumarins are secondary plant metabolites typically found in species of the Asteraceae, Rutaceae and Umbeliferae families that demonstrate diverse pharmacological properties associated with low toxicity to humans. Chemically, they are phenolic compounds characterized by the fusion of benzene with an α-pyrone ring, yielding the benzopyrone nucleus. Our research group usually synthesizes coumarins by the Pechmann reaction, through the condensation of phenols with β-ketoesters catalyzed by Bronsted or Lewis acids. One of the most recent works performed at our laboratory describes the synthesis of 6-methyl-4-chloromethylcoumarins with an IC50 of 1.6 μM concerning the anti-trypanocidal activity. Another work described the syntheses of coumarin-triazole hybrids with potential activity as anticancer agents. Based on the previous works, it was designed the synthesis of 4-chloromethylcoumarins via Pechmann condensation with several substituents at the position 6 of the coumarin ring through click chemistry reactions to improve their antioxidant activities. The synthesis of the coumarins started with Pechmann condensation using hydroquinone and ethyl 4-chloroaceacetate followed by functionalization of the phenolic hydroxyl with propargyl bromide via Williamsom ether synthesis. Subsequently, the click chemistry reactions were performed under microwave irradiation using different organic azides previously synthesized at our laboratory, yielding several 6-substituted-4-chloromethylcoumarin analogues which were evaluated for cell viability through MTT 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay. Their antioxidant capacity was also tested by the DCFH-DA (2’,7’–diihydrochlorofluorescin diacetate) method. Therefore, under the reaction conditions used in this study, it was possible to synthesize 12 novel compounds with yields between 9 and 61%. Preliminary biological assays indicated that the compounds synthesized have potential antioxidant activity and some molecules had potential as an antitumor agent.

Phenolic antioxidants reduce the effect of oxidative stress within cells. They are found in a various fruits, vegetables and as food additives to reduce spoilage. Consumption of antioxidants by humans has been linked with increased lifespan and reduced incidence of cancer and cardiovascular disorders (Cabrera et al. 2006; Kuriyama 2008). In cultured mammalian cells however, some of these phenolic antioxidants have been reported to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to chromosomal breakage (Long et al. 2007; Long & Halliwell 2001). It is clear then, that amongst this group of compounds, in vitro toxicological study is not a reliable prediction of human hazard. It is for this reason that the work described in this thesis was undertaken: the principal aim was to gain a better understanding of the reasons underlying this contradiction. It has been suggested that excessive ROS generated in vitro might be a result of the higher levels of oxygen (~20%) compared to (1-7%) in vivo: (Yusa et al. 1984; Turrens et al. 1982). With clearer understanding, new experimental approaches might be taken to highlight or reduce positive in vitro genotoxicity test results that might be considered misleading. A diverse set of test compounds was first chosen. It included polyphenolic (PPA), monophenolic (MPA) and non-phenolic antioxidants (NPA), in addition to mechanistically characterised oxidants, genotoxins and cytotoxic, non-genotoxins as controls. Genotoxicity was assessed in vitro using the GADD45a, GFP reporter assay and in silico using Derek Nexus™. Amongst the 19 antioxidants assessed, the 11 of 12 of PPAs, 0 of 4 MPAs and 1 of 3 NPAs (ethoxyquin) produced positive results in vitro and 8 of 12 PPAs generated alerts of at least plausible genotoxicity in silico. To discover whether these results were the result of cellular hyperoxia-promoted generation of physiologically irrelevant ROS in cells, genotoxicity was reassessed in the presence of 1 and 5% oxygen. This reduced oxygen exposure had no effect upon the qualitative result for any of the assessed compounds and a negligible effect upon the dose at which any positive result was produced. An assessment of the ability of antioxidants to generate potentially genotoxic ROS within cells was carried out using the intracellular fluorescent dye, dichlorofluorescin diacetate (DCFH-DA). 10 of 12 PPAs, 0 of 4 MPAs and 1 of 3 NPAs (ethoxyquin) were shown to increase the level of ROS within TK6 human lymphoblastoid cells within 4 hours of compound exposure. Within this same timeframe, the mitochondrial membranes in cells treated with 10 of 12 PPAs, 2 of 4 MPAs and 1 of 3 NPAs (ethoxyquin) were shown to become depolarised using JC-1 dye. It was unclear however, whether mitochondrial membrane depolarisation was a cause or a consequence of ROS generation within the cells. In order to assess whether the increase in intracellular ROS led to an increase in oxidised DNA within treated cells, 8-oxoguanine (8-OG) was quantified using a FITC conjugated anti8-OG antibody. This assessment revealed that levels of the oxidised base were only increased in cells exposed to two of the 12 PPAs (quercetin and resorcinol). The level of 8OG detected was lower than the vehicle control for cells treated with 10 of the 15 antioxidants. One interpretation of this is that these agents induce the repair pathway for oxidative damage, which leads to a lower level of oxidised DNA bases in the genome. The results showed that while a large proportion of PPAs produce genotoxic results in vitro and lead to increased levels of ROS, the amount of oxidised DNA is not higher in treated cells. This would suggest the presence of a different mechanism for the observed genotoxicity.