Thèse numérisée par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

Thèse numérisée par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

Thèse numérisée par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

Le Fas Ligand (FasL) est le déclencheur naturel de l’apoptose induite par le récepteur Fas. Il est produit sous la forme d’une protéine membranaire homotrimérique, qui peut être clivée par une métalloprotéase pour engendrer une forme soluble (sFasL). Cette forme conserve sa structure homotrimérique, mais son activité pro-apoptotique est très faible car elle n’atteint pas un degré de polymérisation suffisant. Au laboratoire, une molécule sFasL hautement polymérique a été obtenue en fusionnant un domaine de type immunoglobuline au domaine extracellulaire du FasL. Ce domaine permet de polymériser le sFasL sous forme hexamérique et dodécamérique. Cette molécule appelée pFasL possède une activité anti-tumorale in vitro et in vivo dans un modèle de greffe de cellules humaines tumorales à des souris immunodéficientes. Dans cette étude, nous nous sommes focalisés sur l'amélioration de pFasL, avec deux objectifs complémentaires. Tout d'abord, nous avons fusionné un récepteur à l’antigène de lymphocytes Tγδ (TCRγδ) au pFasL (TCR-pFasL) de façon à orienter son activité vers les cellules tumorales carcinomateuses exprimant l’antigène spécifique de ce TCR, qui est l’EPCR (Endothelial Protein C Receptor). Ensuite, nous souhaitions améliorer la production et l’activité spécifique de pFasL et son dérivé TCR-pFasL. La stratégie de ciblage dépendante du TCR n’a pas été validée dans cette étude, mais nous avons pu décrire une approche originale pour améliorer la production et/ou l’activité cytotoxique de ces chimères en co-exprimant celles-ci avec du sFasL non apoptotique. Cette approche a été validée avec deux autres chimères obtenues à partir de pFasL, l’une contenant la molécule de présentation antigénique HLA-A2 et la seconde le ligand CD80 du récepteur CD28, pour lequel le ciblage fonctionne. Notre étude ouvre ainsi des perspectives pour appliquer ce protocole à une grande variété de protéines de fusion dérivées du sFasL pour des applications diverses, en recherche et en thérapie. / Fas ligand (FasL) is the natural trigger for apoptosis induced by the Fas receptor. FasL exists as an homotrimer on the cell surface, which can be cleaved by a metalloprotease to generate a soluble form (sFasL). The sFasL form retains its homotrimeric structure, but displays almost no pro-apoptotic activity because it does not reach a sufficient degree of polymerisation. In the laboratory, a highly polymeric molecule sFasL was obtained by fusing an immunoglobulin-like domain to the extracellular domain of FasL. This domain polymerises the molecule through disulphide bonds, leading to hexameric and dodecameric compounds. This molecule, called pFasL, possesses an anti-tumor activity in vitro but also in vivo in a model of human tumor cell transplanted to immunodeficient mice. In this study, we focused on improving pFasL with two complementary objectives. Firstly, we fused to pFasL an antigen receptor of γδ T-cells (TCRγδ, leading to TCR-pFasL) to direct its activity towards carcinoma cells expressing this TCR specific antigen, which is the EPCR (Endothelial Protein C Receptor). Then, we wanted to improve the production and specific activity of pFasL and its derivative TCR-pFasL. In this study, the TCR dependent targeting strategy has not been validated, but we have described a novel approach to improve the production and/or cytotoxic activity of these chimeras by coexpressing them with non-apoptotic sFasL. This strategy has been validated with two other chimeras obtained from pFasL, one containing the antigen-presenting molecule HLA-A2 and the second one CD80, the ligand for the CD28 receptor. For this latter one, the cell targeting activity proved efficient. Our study opens up opportunities to improve and develop a wide variety of sFasL-derived fusion proteins for various applications in research and therapy.

Environ 350 millions de personnes dans le monde sont infectées par le virus de l’hépatite B (VHB), dont un million meurent chaque année des conséquences d’une infection VHB chronique. Cette chronicité implique la capacité du VHB de moduler l’apoptose. Dans le cadre du projet présent, l’influence de la capside du VHB sur l’apoptose au niveau du clivage de la Nucléoporine153 (Nup153) par la caspase 3 et l’influence de la protéine core en général sur l’apoptose ont été analysées. Pour répondre à l’effet de la capside sur le clivage de la Nup153 par la caspase 3, des systèmes analytiques in vitro et in vivo ont pu être mis en place. Après avoir purifié la GST-Nup153, l’impact de la capside du VHB sur son clivage a été analysé. Il a été constaté que la capside du VHB n’avait pas d’influence sur le clivage de la Nup153. Ce résultat a été confirmé par le système in vivo qui consistait en des cellules HeLa perméabilisées par la digitonine dans lesquelles la Nup153 a été également clivée en présence ou absence de la capside du VHB. Pour accrocher la capside à la Nup153, des essais de transport ont été réalisés avant le clivage par la caspase 3 recombinante. Dans la deuxième partie, l’influence de la protéine core du VHB sur l’apoptose induite par le récepteur Fas a été étudiée. Des cellules HepG2 ont été transfectées soit avec un vecteur codant pour la construction GFP-core, soit avec le vecteur de contrôle codant pour la GFP sans fusion. Après induction de l’apoptose par le ligand IgFasL, l’apoptose a été mesurée soit par l’analyse de l’activité de la caspase 3, soit par réduction du signal GFP. Les cellules contenant la GFP-core démontraient un taux apoptotique fortement réduit, comparées aux cellules transfectées avec la GFP, indiquant une fonction anti-apoptotique de la protéine core du VHB. / Around 350 million people worlwide are infected with the hepatitis B virus (HBV) and one million of people per year die because of the consequences of a chronic HBV-infection. The capacity of the HBV to become chronic suggests that this virus is capable to modulate the apoptosis. In the context of the present project, the influence of the HBV-capsid on the cleavage of the Nucleoporin153 (Nup153) by the caspase 3 and the influence of the HBV-core protein on the apoptosis in general have been investigated. In order to address the effect of the capsid on the cleavage of the Nup153 by the caspase 3, in vitro and an in vivo analytical systems have been developed. After the purification of the GST-Nup153, the impact of the HBV-capsid on his cleavage has been analyzed. It has been observed, that the HBV-capsid has no effect on the cleavage of the Nup153. This result has been confirmed by the in vivo system which has been represented by digitonin-permeabilized HeLa cells, in which the Nup153 has also been cleaved in presence or absence of the HBV-capsid. In order to attach the capsids on the Nup153, nuclear transport assays have been realized before the cleavage with the recombinant caspase 3. In the second part, the influence of the hepatitis core protein on the Fas induced apoptosis has been investigated. HepG2 cells have been transfected either with a vector coding for the construction GFP-core or with a control vector coding for the GFP-protein without any fusion. After induction of apoptosis by the ligand IgFasL, the apoptosis has been measured by the analysis of the caspase 3 activity and by the decreasing of the GFP signal. Cells containing GFP-core showed a strong decreasing regarding the amount of apoptosis compared to the cells transfected with GFP. This result suggests an anti-apoptotic function of the core protein of the HBV.

Introdução: A ereção peniana é um processo neurovascular complexo iniciado através de estimulação sexual, que podem ser fatores físicos ou psicológicos com atuação de substâncias no endotélio vascular resultando no ato sexual satisfatório. Diversos fatores podem interferir de forma negativa no mecanismo fisiológico da ereção peniana, consequentemente, levando a disfunção erétil, tais fatores como hipertensão arterial sistêmica, diabetes mellitus, tabagismo e alcoolismo. O etanol é uma das substâncias mais consumidas nas diferentes sociedades, tornando-se, assim, alvo de inúmeros estudos que visam conhecer sobre sua toxicidade. Apesar da grande associação entre o consumo de álcool e o aumento da incidência da disfunção erétil, os mecanismos moleculares envolvidos ainda são poucos conhecidos. Devido a abundância, os microRNAs tem sido descrito envolvidos em diversas funções fisiológicas dos processos celulares, e além disso estão envolvidos em muitos processos fisiopatológicos, como, por exemplo, a disfunção erétil. Dentre os processos celulares, os microRNAs exercem funções anti ou pró apoptóticas. Embora a conexão dos microRNAs a apoptose esteja bem estabelecida, sua função em resposta a apoptose induzida pelo etanol permanece em grande parte desconhecida. Objetivos: Avaliar o mecanismo de apoptose, pela expressão de AIF e PARP, assim como dos seus microRNAs reguladores: miR-145, miR-210 e miR-486, nos corpos cavernosos de ratos submetidos a modelo de \"alcoolismo semivoluntário\". Material e métodos: Foram utilizados 12 ratos Wistar divididos em dois grupos: controle (C) e tratado com etanol (A) a 20% durante sete semanas. As amostras dos corpos cavernosos foram preparadas para o estudo morfométrico pela coloração de tricrômico de Masson, para o estudo da expressão protéica de AIF e PARP por imunohistoquímica e para o estudo da expressão gênica no tecido cavernoso do miR- 145, miR-210 e do miR-486, por PCR em tempo real. Resultados: A análise imuhistoquímica mostrou pouca marcação positiva nuclear para a proteína PARP e AIF nos corpos cavernosos dos animais dos grupos controle e tratado com etanol. Após análise da expressão dos microRNAs miR-145, -210 e -486, nos 12 animais estudados, não foram encontrados resultados com diferença estatística significativa entre os grupos controle e alcoolizado. Conclusões: A expressão gênica do miRNA -145 e miRNA-486 foi maior nos animais do grupo tratado com etanol quando comparado aos animais do grupo controle; A expressão gênica do miRNA - 210 foi maior nos animais do grupo controle quando comparado aos animais do grupo tratado com etanol; Foi observada correlação entre a expressão protéica de PARP e AIF e do miRNA -210, ambos com maior marcação positiva no grupo controle. / Introduction: Penile erection is a complex neurovascular process initiated through sexual stimulation, which can be physical or psychological factors with action of substances in the vascular endothelium resulting in the satisfactory sexual act. Several factors can negatively interfere in the physiological mechanism of penile erection, consequently leading to erectile dysfunction, such factors as systemic arterial hypertension, diabetes mellitus, smoking and alcoholism. Ethanol is one of the most consumed substances in different societies, becoming, therefore, the target of numerous studies that aim to know about its toxicity. Despite the large association between alcohol consumption and the increased incidence of erectile dysfunction, the molecular mechanisms involved are still poorly understood. Due to abundance, microRNAs have been described involved in various physiological functions of cellular processes, and in addition are involved in many pathophysiological processes, such as erectile dysfunction. Among the cellular processes microRNAs have anti-apoptotic or pro functions. Although the connection of the microRNAs to apoptosis is well established, their function in response to ethanol-induced apoptosis remains largely unknown. Objectives: To evaluate the mechanism of apoptosis, by the expression of AIF and PARP, as well as of its regulatory microRNAs: miR-145, miR-210 and miR-486, in the cavernous bodies of rats submitted to a model of \"semi-voluntary alcoholism\". Material and methods: 12 Wistar rats were divided into two groups: Control (C) and treated with ethanol (A) diluted 20% for seven weeks. Samples of the corpus cavernosum were prepared for morphometric study by Masson\'s trichrome stain, study for protein expression of CASPASE 3 (pro-apoptotic) by immunohistochemistry and study for gene expression of miRNA-21 (anti-apoptotic) in serum and the cavernous tissue. Results: The immunohistochemical analysis showed little positive nuclear marking for the PARP and AIF protein in the corpus cavernosum of the control and ethanol treated groups. After analysis of miR-145, -210 and -486 microRNA expression in the 12 animals studied, no statistically significant differences were found between the control and alcoholized groups. Conclusions: The gene expression of miRNA-145 and miRNA-486 was higher in the animals of the ethanol treated group when compared to the animals in the control group; Gene expression of miRNA - 210 was higher in the control group than in the animals treated with ethanol; A correlation was observed between the protein expression of PARP and AIF and of the -210 miRNA, both with greater positive marking in the control group.

L'athérosclérose est une pathologie progressive, à évolution lente qui consiste en la formation d'une plaque d'athérome dans la paroi artérielle dont la rupture est à l'origine de complications athéro-thrombotiques graves. La nature et le devenir des lésions d'athérosclérose dépendent en grande partie de l'équilibre entre la survie et la mort des composants cellulaires de la plaque. Les cellules musculaires lisses (CML) qui composent la chape fibreuse sont essentielles à la stabilité de la plaque, ainsi l'apoptose des CML contribue à la fragilisation et à la rupture de la plaque. Dans des conditions de stress ou de carence nutritive les cellules activent des voies d'adaptation et de survie comme l'autophagie, un processus d'autodigestion du matériel cellulaire par la voie de dégradation lysosomale. De part sa participation à la régulation de fonctions cellulaires, une dérégulation de l'autophagie est aussi évoquée dans les maladies cardiovasculaires. Bien que l'autophagie soit un processus non sélectif, elle peut aussi éliminer sélectivement des organites tels que les mitochondries. La dégradation sélective des mitochondries ou mitophagie participe ainsi au contrôle qualité des mitochondries, mais permet aussi de prévenir l'apoptose dans des conditions pathologiques où les mitochondries sont altérées. Ainsi dans conditions de stress métabolique et oxydant la mitophagie pourrait limiter l'augmentation des ERO mitochondriaux et la libération de protéines pro-apoptotiques dans le cytosol, afin de protéger les CML de la chape fibreuse contre la mort cellulaire. L'objective de mon projet de thèse à été de caractériser et d'étudier le rôle de la mitophagie dans les CML vasculaires soumises à un stress athérogène. Nos résultats ont permis de mettre en évidence pour la première fois que la mitophagie est activée dans les CML humaines en présence de lipides athérogènes oxydés. Nous avons identifié des dysfonctions mitochondriales (altération du potentiel de membrane, fission) et la voie de signalisation Drp1/PINK1/Parkin comme impliquées dans la mise en place de la mitophagie. La quantification du flux mitophagique basal et dans les conditions d'invalidation ou de surexpression de PINK1 et Parkin dans les CML humaines nous ont permis de démontrer que la mitophagie est un mécanisme de défense contre l'apoptose induite par un stress lipidique athérogène. Dans une deuxième partie, nous avons généré un modèle murin d'athérosclérose possédant une délétion spécifique du gène Atg7 dans les CML. L'analyse du phénotype des plaques montre que la déficience en autophagie conduit au développement d'une plaque instable avec une augmentation de l'apoptose et de l'inflammation. L'analyse des paramètres de la mitophagie montre une dysfonction de ce processus à l'origine d'une altération du contrôle qualité mitochondrial avec une augmentation de la fragmentation et de la production d'ERO mitochondriaux. Ces résultats suggèrent qu'une altération du processus d'auto/mitophagie peut contribuer au développement de plaques d'athérosclérose instables. En conclusion, nos résultats renforcent l'intérêt de la mitophagie comme un nouveau marqueur de fragilisation de la plaque et une cible potentielle pour de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques visant à stabiliser la plaque d'athérome. / Atherosclerosis is a progressive vascular disease, resulting from deposition of lipids in the arterial wall and subsequent plaque formation. Plaque destabilization and rupture causes rupture serious atherotrombotic complications such as myocardial infarction, stroke or sudden cardiac death. The mechanisms involved in plaque destabilization and rupture are rather complex and depend, at least in part, on the survival versus death balance of the cellular components of the lesion. The vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) comprising the fibrous cap of the plaque are essential for its stability. Thus VSMCs apoptosis can lead to increased plaque fragility and rupture. During nutrient deprivation or stress conditions, the cells activate cell safeguard mechanisms such as a autophagy - a conserved lysosomal process of intracellular organelle degradation. Because of its crucial role in the regulation of cell homeostasis, deregulation of autophagy is implicated in development of different pathologies such as cardiovascular diseases. However autophagy is not only a nonselective process, but can instead target selectively organelles such as mitochondria. The selective mitochondrial degradation or mitophagy is implicated both in mitochondrial quality-control and in the prevention of apoptosis in different pathologic conditions where mitochondria are altered. Thereby the mitophagy could limit the increase of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and the release of pro-apoptotic proteins in the cytosol during metabolic or oxidative stress, and prevent the death of the VSMC of the fibrous cap. The objective of my research work was to characterize mitophagy and to identify its role in VSMC exposed to the atherogenic stress. We have established for the first time that in response to atherogenic stressors human VSMCs activated mitophagy. We described mitochondrial dysfunction (membrane potential alteration and fission) and the signaling pathway Drp1/PINK1/Parkin as implicated in mitophagy initiation. The quantification of mitophagy flux in baseline and PINK1 or Parkin knockdown or overexpression conditions in human VSMC allowed us to demonstrate that the mitophagy is a safeguard mechanism against apoptosis induced by an atherogenic lipid stress. Next we generated a mouse model of atherosclerosis harboring or not VSMC specific deletion of autophagy gene Atg7. The plaque phenotype analysis demonstrates that autophagy deficiency led to the destabilization of the plaque characterized by increased apoptosis and inflammation. The mitophagy parameter analysis demonstrated the dysfunction of this process leading to de alteration of mitochondrial quality-control with an increase of fragmentation and mitochondrial ROS production. These results suggest that the alteration of auto-/mitophagy can contribute to the unstable atherosclerotic plaque development. In conclusion, our results emphasize the importance of mitophagy as a new plaque instability marker and a potential target for development of new strategies aimed at stabilizing the atheroma plaque.

O líquen plano oral (LPO) é uma doença inflamatória crônica de causa desconhecida, e seu potencial de malignização é um tema bastante controverso. Diversos estudos têm sugerido que pacientes portadores de líquen plano apresentam um maior risco de desenvolver câncer. Contudo, muitos autores acreditam que não haja dados suficientes que provem uma associação entre líquen plano e câncer. Para esses autores, a maioria dos casos que sofreram transformação maligna é decorrente de falhas no diagnóstico inicial da lesão. Portanto, objetivou-se avaliar a expressão imuno-histoquímica das proteínas relacionadas à apoptose e proliferação celular, respectivamente caspase-3 ativa, Bcl-2 e Ki-67 no LPO e em displasias epiteliais na tentativa de explicar a polêmica em relação ao potencial de transformação maligna do LPO e enfatizar a importância de um acompanhamento de longo prazo dos pacientes com esta doença. Com esse propósito, foram selecionadas 14 amostras de LPO, 14 amostras de leucoplasia com displasia epitelial, além de 09 amostras de mucosa bucal normal como controle. A avaliação da expressão de caspase-3 ativa, Bcl-2 e Ki-67 foi conduzida de acordo com a técnica da imunoperoxidase. A contagem das células imunomarcadas nas amostras de LPO, de leucoplasia com displasia epitelial e de mucosa bucal normal resultou em número destas células por mm2 nas diferentes regiões (camada basal, camada suprabasal e infiltrado inflamatório) para cada imunomarcador. A expressão de Bcl-2 em células epiteliais, da camada basal, ocorreu mais frequentemente no grupo da leucoplasia com displasia epitelial, com diferença estatística entre o grupo do LPO e o grupo controle. Verificou-se também, uma alta expressão da proteína Bcl-2 em células inflamatórias de lesões de LPO e de leucoplasia com displasia epitelial. A expressão do marcador Ki-67 foi superior em todos os níveis teciduais analisados nas lesões de LPO e de leucoplasia com displasia epitelial quando comparados com o grupo controle. Concluiu-se que a expressão mais elevada das proteínas Bcl-2 e Ki-67 nos casos de LPO e de leucoplasia com displasia epitelial, podem revelar a possibilidade da presença de alterações moleculares morfologicamente imperceptíveis. / The oral lichen planus (OLP) is a chronic inflammatory disease of unknown cause, and its malignant potential is a very controversial issue. Several studies have suggested that patients with lichen planus have a higher risk of developing cancer. However, many authors believe that there is insufficient evidence to prove an association between lichen planus and cancer. For these authors, most of the cases that had undergone malignant transformation is due to flaws in the lesion initial diagnosis. Therefore, the aim was to evaluate the immunohistochemical expression of proteins related to apoptosis and cell proliferation, respectively active caspase-3, Bcl-2 and Ki-67 in epithelial dysplasia and LPO in an attempt to explain the controversy regarding the potential malignant transformation of OLP and emphasize the importance of a long-term monitoring of patients with this disease. For this purpose, we selected 14 samples of OLP, 14 samples of leukoplakia with epithelial dysplasia, and 09 samples of normal oral mucosa as controls. The evaluation of the expression of active caspase-3, Bcl-2 and Ki-67 was conducted in accordance with the immunoperoxidase technique. The immunostained cells counting in samples of OLP, epithelial dysplasia in leukoplakia and normal oral mucosa resulted in a number of these cells per mm2 in the different regions (basal layer, suprabasal layer and inflammatory infiltrate) for each immunostained. The expression of Bcl-2 in epithelial cells, the basal layer, occurred more frequently in the group of leukoplakia with epithelial dysplasia, with statistical difference between the group of OLP and the control group. There was a high expression of Bcl-2 protein in inflammatory cells in OLP lesions and leukoplakia with epithelial dysplasia. The expression of the marker Ki-67 was superior in all analyzed tissue levels in OLP lesions and leukoplakia with epithelial dysplasia when compared to the control group. It was concluded that the highest expression of Bcl-2 protein and Ki-67 in cases of OLP and leukoplakia with epithelial dysplasia, can reveal the possible presence of molecular changes morphologically imperceptible.

As glândulas salivares são estruturas essenciais para a manutenção da homeostase da cavidade oral pela síntese e secreção do fluido salivar. A disfunção ou perda permanente das glândulas salivares causadas por radioterapia, doenças inflamatórias ou desordens congênitas elevam principalmente o risco de infecções da mucosa oral e de estruturas dentárias, além de potencialmente prejudicar funções fisiológicas como fala, mastigação e paladar, diretamente interferindo na qualidade de vida dos indivíduos afetados. Os tratamentos atualmente disponíveis são apenas paliativos, ressaltando a necessidade de se compreender melhor os processos embriogênicos a fim de desenvolver novas estratégias terapêuticas capazes de regenerar as glândulas salivares. O princípio da formação das glândulas salivares baseia-se na coordenação de diversos processos morfogenéticos, e este trabalho foca particularmente em investigar a formação do espaço luminal do sistema de ductos, uma vez que a adequada abertura dos lumens é um processo essencial para a secreção salivar. Relata-se que a remoção das células centrais dos cordões sólidos epiteliais por morte celular apoptótica é o principal mecanismo de abertura do espaço luminal dos futuros ductos glandulares em camundongos. Porém, pouco se sabe sobre o controle temporal da apoptose durante o desenvolvimento glandular e sobre seu comportamento em glândulas salivares humanas. Neste trabalho, o perfil de expressão de diversas proteínas envolvidas na cascata apoptótica em glândulas salivares fetais humanas foi analisado de acordo com cada estágio morfogenético por imunoistoquímica (Bax, Bak, Bad, Bid, Bcl-2, Bcl-x, Bcl-xL, caspase-3 clivada, caspases-6, -7 e -9, apaf-1, survivina e citocromo c). As análises semi-qualitativas resultaram em negatividade apenas para as proteínas Bcl-2, Bad, Bid e caspase-3 clivada em todas as fases de desenvolvimento. A expressão nuclear de Bax e Bak foi identificada em presumidos espaços luminais em estágios precoces, enquanto Bcl-xL foi o fator antiapoptótico da família Bcl-2 que exibiu expressão nuclear mais importante. Caspases-6, -7 e -9 foram positivas em todas as fases, e a ausência de caspase-3 clivada sugere caspase-7 como principal caspase efetora da apoptose em desenvolvimento de glândulas salivares humanas. Ambos os componentes do complexo apoptossomo foram positivos durante o desenvolvimento glandular, e o inibidor survivina demonstrou mais positividade nuclear em estágios mais avançados. Ao observar a expressão de reguladores apoptóticos durante o desenvolvimento glandular humano, foram realizados experimentos funcionais com culturas de tecido glandular de camundongos para avaliar o papel das caspases durante a formação desta estrutura. Inicialmente detectou-se a atividade apoptótica em glândulas salivares de camundongos albinos no centro dos cordões epiteliais primários a partir de estágios precoces de desenvolvimento através de TUNEL e caspase-3 clivada. A partir disso, foi realizada a inibição apoptótica funcional in vitro durante o mesmo período, que resultou em ductos significativamente mais amplos e em defeitos morfológicos importantes nas estruturas luminal e acinar. Este trabalho evidenciou portanto atividade apoptótica durante a formação de glândulas salivares humanas e de camundongo, expressando-se em fases mais precoces do que reportadas anteriormente. Além disso, a ausência de Bad e Bid indica que a via intrínseca está mais ativa que a extrínseca, e distintos perfis de expressão da maioria das moléculas sugere adicionais funções não-apoptóticas durante a morfogênese glandular. / Salivary glands are essential structures for the maintenance of homeostasis of the oral cavity by synthesizing and secreting saliva. Permanent dysfunction or loss of salivary glands caused by radiotherapies, inflammatory diseases or congenital disorders increase mainly the risk of infections of the oral mucosa and tooth surface, also impairing physiological functions as speech, mastication and taste, directly interfering in quality of life. Current treatments are only palliative-based, which highlights the need of having a better understanding of embryonic processes to develop therefore new therapeutic strategies able to regenerate salivary glands. The development of glandular secretory units and ductal system involves the coordination of several morphogenetic processes, and this study particularly focuses in investigating the formation of the lumenal space of the ductal system, as the proper lumen opening is an essential step for the salivary secretion. The clearance of the central cells of developing solid epithelial stalks by apoptotic cell death is the main mechanism of lumen space opening within presumptive ducts in mouse salivary glands. However little is known about its temporal regulation and its function in human salivary glands. Here we analysed the profile expression of several apoptosis-related proteins during human salivary gland development in correlation to each morphogenetic stage by immunohistochemistry (Bax, Bak, Bad, Bid, Bcl-2, Bclx, Bcl-xL, cleaved caspase-3, caspases-6, -7 e -9, apaf-1, survivin e citocromo c). Immunohistochemical results were analysed semi-qualitatively, and proteins Bcl-2, Bad, Bid and cleaved caspase-3 were considered completely negative at all stages of development. The nuclear expression of Bax and Bak were observed within the presumptive luminal spaces at early stages, while Bcl-xL was the antiapoptotic factor of Bcl-2 family that showed more prominent nuclear expression. Caspases-6, -7 and -9 were positive at all stages, and the absence of cleaved caspase-3 suggests caspase-7 as the main effector caspase during human salivary gland development. Both components of the apoptosome complex were also positive through all development, and the inhibitor of apoptosis survivin has shown more nuclear positivity at later stages. As the expression of apoptotic regulators was observed during human salivary gland development, functional experiments were then performed in mouse salivary gland cultures to determine the apoptotic activity of during the glandular formation. Initially, the apoptotic activity was detected in mouse salivary glands within the centre of primary epithelial stalks from early stages of development by TUNEL and cleaved caspase-3. Thus the in vitro apoptotic inhibition was performed at the same stages, which resulted in significant wider ducts and important morphological defects within luminal and acinar structures. This work has therefore evidenced the existence of apoptotic role in salivary gland lumen formation of both human and mouse models, having an earlier start point as reported before. Moreover, the absence of Bad and Bid indicates that the intrinsic pathway is more active than the extrinsic during human development, and the distinct subcellular expression of most molecules suggests additional non-apoptotic functions.

Entre as estratégias que os protozoários do gênero Leishmania apresentam para o escape da resposta imune do hospedeiro vertebrado, há a ocorrência de um tipo de morte celular programada, conhecida como apoptose. Quando em contato com o macrófago, a Leishmania é fagocitada de forma silenciosa, evitando a resposta inflamatória do hospedeiro vertebrado. Alguns autores defendem que a Leishmania mimetiza a apoptose, expondo entre outras moléculas um fosfolipídio que sinalizaria para o macrófago que está em apoptose, e esse mecanismo é denominado na literatura como mimetismo apoptótico. O objetivo desta tese foi elucidar como ocorre esse escape com o enfoque nos fosfolipídios presentes e expostos em parasitas mutantes de L. (L.) amazonensis com características fenotípicas distintas, utilizando diferentes estratégias: transfecção com cosmídeos contendo frações do genoma de L. (L.) amazonensis; identificação e clonagem do gene pi4k contido no cosmídeo em vetor de expressão em Leishmania; seleção de parasitas resistentes a miltefosina, mantidos ou não sob pressão do antibiótico, seleção de parasitas na 28a passagem em cultura; seleção de parasitas purificados de macrófagos de linhagem RAW. A caracterização desses mutantes foi realizada em relação à ligação de anexina V-FITC, infectividade em macrófagos da linhagem RAW, tomada de fosfolipídios fluorescentes (NBD), IC50 de células tratadas com os antibióticos duramicina, miltefosina e anfotericina B. De acordo com os ensaios de ligação à anexina V-FITC, identificamos que os mutantes pi4k-pSNBR e os mutantes resistentes à miltefosina apresentaram maior ligação à anexina V-FITC. O gene que codifica a fosfatidilinositol (PI) 4-kinase, fez com que os parasitas que continham tanto o cosmídeo como o superexpressor pi4k, apresentassem menor infectividade em relação ao controle selvagem. O mesmo ocorreu para os parasitas resistentes à miltefosina. Em contrapartida, os parasitas derivados desses resistentes, mas mantidos sem pressão do antibiótico, recuperaram os valores de infectividade comparáveis ao grupo controle. Interessante é que os parasitas resistentes à miltefosina, mantidos ou não sob pressão, assim como o parasita superexpressor do gene pi4k apresentaram maior ligação à anexina V-FITC em relação ao controle selvagem, indicando que a ligação à anexina V-FITC não se correlaciona com infectividade. Parasitas resistentes à miltefosina, mantidos ou não sob pressão apresentaram maior sensibilidade à duramicina, e quando tratados com anfotericina B, esses parasitas apresentaram maior resistência. Uma outra abordagem analisada nessa tese foi elucidar qual o fosfolipídio é reconhecido pelo macrófago durante a infecção por L. (L.) amazonensis. Como resultado, observamos que os lipossomas contendo PC levam à diminuição dose-dependente da infecção, o que não foi visto em PS ou PC:PE. Esse resultado sugere a importância de PC para o estabelecimento da infectividade. / Among the strategies that Leishmania protozoans present to escape the immune response of the vertebrate host, there is a type of programmed cell death, known as apoptosis. When in contact with the macrophage, Leishmania is phagocytized in a silent manner, avoiding the inflammatory response of the vertebrate host. Some authors argue that Leishmania mimics apoptosis, exposing among other molecules a phospholipid that would signal to the macrophage that is in apoptosis, and this mechanism is denominated in the literature as apoptotic mimicry. The objective of this thesis was to elucidate how this escape occurs with the focus on the phospholipids present and exposed in mutant parasites of L. (L.) amazonensis, with distinct phenotypic characteristics, using different strategies, such as selection of parasites showing higher attachment to annexin V-FITC. After transfection with cosmids containing the genome of L. (L.) amazonensis; identification and cloning of the pi4k gene contained in the cosmid in Leishmania expression vector; selection of parasites resistant to miltefosine, whether or not under antibiotic pressure, selection of parasites at the 28th passage in culture; selection of purified strains of RAW lineage macrophages. The characterization of these mutants was performed in relation to the annexin V-FITC binding, infectivity in RAW lineage macrophages, fluorescent phospholipid (NBD) uptake, IC50 of cells treated with the antibiotics duramycin, miltefosine and amphotericin B. According to the binding assays to Annexin V-FITC, we have identified that pi4k-pSNBR mutants and miltefosin-resistant mutants showed higher attachment to annexin V-FITC. The gene coding for phosphatidylinositol (PI) 4-kinase caused the parasites containing both the cosmid and the pi4k superexpressor to have less infectivity than the wild-type control. The same occurred for parasites resistant to miltefosine. In contrast, the parasites derived from these resistant, but kept without antibiotic pressure, recovered infectivity values, comparable to the control group. Interestingly, miltefosine-resistant parasites, whether or not under pressure, as well as the overexpressing parasite of the pi4k gene showed greater attachment to annexin V-FITC over wild-type control, indicating that attachment to annexin V-FITC does not correlate with infectivity. Parasites resistant to miltefosine, whether or not under pressure, showed greater sensitivity to duramycin, and when treated with amphotericin B, these parasites showed greater resistance. Another approach analyzed in this thesis was to elucidate the phospholipid recognized by the macrophage during infection by L. (L.) amazonensis. As a result, we observed that PC-containing liposomes lead to dose-dependent decrease of infection, which has not been seen in PS or PC: PE. This result suggests the importance of PC for the establishment of infectivity.