Degree awarded (2003): EdDC, Counseling, Human and Organizational Studies, George Washington University / This study was designed to examine the perception and incidence of sexual harassment and determine the incidence of sexual harassment in relation to girls participating in high school athletics. The similarities and differences of interpretation of various interactions between high school athletes with their male and female athletic coaches were examined. This study also investigated the actual incidence of sexual harassment by male and female high school athletic coaches as reported by female athletes.<p>The study population included male and female athletic coaches currently coaching a female high school athletic team and female college students who participated in high school athletics.</p><p>This researcher, in order to accommodate the study population and research questions, adapted the Sexual Harassment Survey (1995) by Margery J. Holman, Ph.D. Female student athletes and male and female coaches responded to survey questions on demographics and their perceptions and understanding of described behaviors. The student athletes completed an additional section of the survey pertaining to their experience of sexual harassment.</p><p>Descriptive statistics (including frequencies and percentages as well as means and standard deviations) and inferential statistics (One-Way Analysis of Variance with a Scheffe test of significance) were used to analyze the data.</p><p>A comparison of the responses of all three groups (female athletes, male coaches and female coaches) to questions pertaining to perceptions of sexual harassment indicated agreement among the groups in the identification of inappropriate behaviors. However, there was a significant difference in the level of agreement for seven described behaviors. In general, male and female coaches agreed with each other more often than with female athletes when identifying the behaviors associated with sexual harassment. The investigation of incidence indicated that female athletes experienced more behaviors associated with sexual harassment from male coaches than from female coaches. Understanding that the same behaviors were identified by female athletes, male coaches and female coaches, it can be concluded that inappropriate behavior was consistently identified, but the identification of sexual harassment does not necessarily diminish the incidence of sexual harassment.</p> / Advisory Committee: Dr. Lori Lefcourt, Dr. Chris Erickson, Dr. Patricia Sullivan, Dr. Janet C. Heddesheimer, Dr. Donald C. Linkowski (Chair)

The research objectives were (1) to explore how coaches and youth golfers perceive a healthy coach-athlete relationship and (2) what they do to facilitate such a relationship. A qualitative small-q study was done by interviewing five experienced coaches and five competitive youth-golfers using two semi-structured interview guides in order to get both coaches’ and athletes’ perspectives. This resulted in a definition of a healthy coach-athlete relationship, reflecting the (1) objective, which was that a healthy coach-athlete relationship is the relationship that is coach-athlete centered, characterized by open and honest communication, mutual trust and respect, work-fun balance and caring- altogether ensuring positive influences on athletes’ and coaches’ mental health and well-being, professional/athletic and personal development. The interviews further resulted in a set strategies to create and maintain such a relationship, thus reflecting the (2) objective. These strategies could be connected to the 4C framework by (Jowett, 2017; Jowett &amp; Shanmugam, 2016). Both coaches and athletes shared strategies that facilitated the 4Cs, such as closeness (e.g., - mutual care and trust), commitment (e.g., - do what is agreed), complementarity (e.g., - having coach-athlete dialogues), and co-orientation (e.g., - being attentive to each other’s needs on and off the season). In the discussion the results were related to the previous research, and methodological reflections, practical implications, and future research directions were provided. Keywords: Coach-athlete relationship, mental health, well-being, youth athlete, golf. / Studies syfte var (1) att undersöka hur tränare och ungdomsgolfspelare uppfattar en hälsosam tränare-ungdomsgolfspelare relation samt (2) vad de gör för att främja en sådan relation. En kvalitativ small-q studie genomfördes. Fem erfarna golftränare och fem tävlande ungdomsgolfspelare intervjuades med hjälp av två semistrukturerade intervjuguider för att samla perspektiv från både tränare och spelare. Detta resulterade i en definition av en hälsosam tränare-spelare relation, som besvarade frågeställning (1), vilket var att en hälsosam tränare-spelare relation är en centrerad tränare-spelare relation som karaktäriseras av öppen och ärlig kommunikation, ömsesidig tillit och respekt, professionell och vänskaplig balanssom positivt influerar tränarens och spelarens mentala hälsa och välmående, professionella/idrottsliga och personliga utveckling. Vidare resulterade intervjuerna i strategier som kan användas för att främja och bibehålla en sådan relation, som besvarar frågeställning (2). Dessa strategier kunde kopplas till 4C modellen av (Jowett, 2017; Jowett &amp; Shanmugam, 2016). Tränare och spelare delade med sig av strategier som främjande 4C,closeness (t.ex. ömsesidig ombry och tillit, commitment (t.ex. genomföra det som är planerat), complementarity (t.ex. ha tränar-spelar dialoger), och co-orientation (t.ex. vara uppmärksam om varandras behov under och efter säsongen). I diskussionen kopplades resultaten till tidigare forskning, reflektioner kring metoden, samt presentation av praktiska implikationer och framtida forskning.

Studiens syfte var att undersöka huruvida upplevd kvalité på tränare- idrottare relation (närhet, engagemang och komplement), idrottsidentitet och motivationsklimat (prestationsorienterat- och uppgiftsorienterat-motivationsklimat) kan predicera symptom på utbrändhetsdimensionen emotionell och fysisk utmattning hos unga elitsatsande ungdomar lagidrottare. Ungdomarna kombinerar sin elitsatsning med att gå utbildning RIG eller NIU. Studien bestod av 92 deltagare (48 män och 44 kvinnor). För att delta i studien fanns vissa krav, vara mellan 15 till 20 år (M=16.96 SD=.706), studera via NIU eller RIG samt att ingå i en lagsport. Föreliggande studie använde den integrerade modellen av idrottslig utbrändhet (Gustafsson et al., 2011) för att kunna skapa en större förståelse för idrottslig utbrändhet. Studiens resultat utifrån regressionsanalysen visade att det fanns ett statistiskt signifikant samband mellan alla variabler i tränare – idrottare relation (närhet komplement och engagemang) vilket går att säga att dessa tre variabler kan predicera symtom på emotionell och fysisk utmattning hos elitsatsande ungdomar. Det betyder att relationen mellan tränare och idrottare är av vikt för att undvika uppkomsten av emotionell och fysik utmattning. De andra variablerna idrottsidentitet och motivationsklimat (prestationsorienterat- och uppgiftsorienterat-motivationsklimat) visades sig inte vara signifikant vilket gör att de inte går att predicera symtom på emotionell och fysisk utmattning. Resultatet från studien synliggör att tränare- idrottare relation är viktigt för att förebygga uppkomsten av emotionell och fysisk utmattning. / The aim of the study was to investigate whether the perceived quality of the coach-athlete relationship (closeness, commitment and complement), sports identity and motivational climate (performance-oriented and task-oriented motivational climate) can predict symptoms of the emotional burnout dimension and physical exhaustion in young elite team athletes. The athletes combine their elite effort by attending training at RIG or NIU. The study consisted of 92 participants (48 men and 44 women). The study's requirements were for the participants to be between 15 and 20 in age (M=16.96 SD=.706), study via NIU or RIG and to be part of a team sport. The present study used the Integrated Model of Sport Burnout (Gustafsson et al., 2011) to create a greater understanding of sport burnout. The results of the study, based on the regression analysis, showed that there was a significant relationship between all variables in the coach-athlete relationship (closeness, complement and commitment) which indicate that all three variables can predict symptoms of emotional and physical exhaustion in elite youth. This means that the relationship between coach and athlete is important to avoid the onset of emotional and physical exhaustion. The other variables, athletic identity and motivational climate (performance-oriented and task-oriented motivational climate) were not found to be significant, which means that they cannot predict symptoms of emotional and physical exhaustion. The result of the study show that the coach-athlete relationship is important to prevent the occurrence of emotional and physical exhaustion.

Most of the research in this field that has been done is on healthy young men, this means that the results from the majority of the studies cannot be applied to women and their bodies, especially in sport, health and exercise. In this study we are investigating the phenome of a woman's menstrual cycle relative to the male coaches knowledge. This study aims to examine male soccer coaches and their knowledge about the menstrual cycle, their relationship with the players and how it affects the conversation climate. To investigate this, semi-structured interviews were conducted with six male soccer coaches who coaches girls in the ages of 11-15. The collected data were analyzed with phenomenology analysis. The result: Male soccer coaches' knowledge about women's menstrual cycle is low and needs to be improved. The results also showed that a relaxed relationship with an open communication enables coaches and players to feel comfortable to talk about external and personal topics. Conclusion: The knowledge of the menstrual cycle needs to improve. Satisfaction of the concept, safety, knowledge, awareness and openness seems to be important to coaches and makes it easier for them to talk about more personal and private topics with the players.

Plusieurs études se sont intéressées aux conséquences des comportements adoptés par les entraîneurs. Un comportement n’a cependant pas reçu l’attention méritée : la rétroaction négative. Pourtant, cette rétroaction est à la fois essentielle aux progrès et porteuse de conséquences négatives potentielles (Brewer, et al. 1991; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996). Le présent mémoire propose que la qualité de la rétroaction négative est déterminante dans les conséquences vécues par les athlètes. Une étude corrélationnelle a été menée auprès de 315 athlètes et 54 entraîneurs. Des analyses multiniveaux ont confirmé qu’une rétroaction négative de qualité doit soutenir l’autonomie des athlètes, et six caractéristiques définissant une telle rétroaction ont été identifiées. Il a aussi été démontré que la qualité de la rétroaction négative prédit l’expérience phénoménologique et les performances des athlètes au-delà de la quantité de rétroaction et du style interpersonnel de l’entraîneur. Les implications théoriques et pratiques de ces résultats sont discutées. / Past studies have looked at the consequences of various coaches’ behaviours. However, a specific behaviour has not yet received all the attention it deserves: negative feedback. Yet, this type of feedback is both essential and risky considering that it can lead to negative consequences (Brewer et al., 1991; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996). The present thesis proposes that negative feedback quality plays a crucial role in predicting athletes’ outcomes. In total, 315 athletes and 54 coaches participated in a cross-sectional study. Results of hierarchical linear modeling confirmed that a high quality negative feedback supports athletes’ autonomy. Six specific characteristics defining this type of feedback were also identified. Finally, results showed that negative feedback quality predicts athletes’ phenomenological experiences and performance above and beyond what could be explained by negative feedback quantity and coaches’ interpersonal style. The theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

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Thèse de doctorat présenté en vue de l'obtention du doctorat en psychologie - recherche intervention, option psychologie clinique (Ph.D) / Par leur façon d’interagir avec les athlètes, les parents et les entraîneurs contribuent à la création d’un environnement social plus au moins favorable à leur développement sportif. La théorie de l’autodétermination (TAD) propose qu’en adoptant un style interpersonnel composé de soutien à l’autonomie, de structure et d’implication, jumelés à peu de comportements contrôlants, ces figures d’autorité favoriseraient le bien-être et la performance des athlètes. Or, un nombre restreint d’études s’est intéressé au rôle simultané de différentes figures d’autorité. De plus, les façons dont il est possible d’aider les entraîneurs à adopter un style interpersonnel favorisant le développement sportif des athlètes demeurent peu étudiées. En effet, bien que quelques programmes de formation, dont le programme reROOT, existent, ceux-ci comportent certaines limites ou en sont à leurs premières validations. Les objectifs de la présente thèse étaient donc de (1) vérifier si le soutien à l’autonomie des entraîneurs et des parents permettent de prédire le bien-être et la performance des athlètes de manière indépendante ou en interaction (article 1), (2) tester l’impact du programme de formation reROOT sur le style interpersonnel des entraîneurs ainsi que sur le développement sportif des athlètes à l’aide d’un essai pilote contrôlé randomisé (article 2) et (3) évaluer l’appréciation et l’utilité perçue de ce programme par les entraîneurs à l’aide de groupes de discussion (article 3). L’article 1 incluait deux études par questionnaire : l’une menée auprès de 143 athlètes de sports et de niveaux variés et l’autre, auprès de 109 joueurs de soccer masculin de haute performance. Cet article suggère que les parents et les entraîneurs auraient des rôles indépendants dans le développement sportif des athlètes. En effet, les résultats des deux études montrent que le soutien à l’autonomie des parents et des entraîneurs étaient associés au bien-être des athlètes. Or, contrairement aux résultats des études antérieures, ces effets étaient additifs plutôt qu’interactifs. Quant à la performance des athlètes, seul le soutien à l’autonomie des entraîneurs y était associé. L’article 2 présente les résultats de l’essai pilote contrôlé randomisé testant l’efficacité du programme de formation reROOT un programme visant l’enseignement d’un style interpersonnel propice au développement sportif des athlètes, tel que défini par la TAD. Les entraîneurs et athlètes de 23 équipes sportives universitaires ont été distribués aléatoirement à deux conditions : la condition expérimentale, où les entraîneurs étaient invités à suivre le programme immédiatement, et la condition témoin, où ils étaient plutôt placés sur une liste d’attente. Les résultats montrent un niveau plus élevé du style interpersonnel auto-rapporté chez les entraîneurs ayant participé au programme un an après la fin du programme. De plus, les athlètes de la condition expérimentale rapportaient davantage de motivation autonome et tendaient à avoir de meilleures performances deux mois après la fin du programme, contrairement aux athlètes de la condition témoin. Or, aucune différence significative n’a été trouvée entre les deux conditions en ce qui concerne la perception des athlètes du style interpersonnel de leurs entraîneurs ou au niveau de leur bien-être et de leur motivation contrôlée. Les analyses de modérations suggèrent enfin que le programme pourrait s’avérer plus efficace dans certains contextes, soit lorsque les entraîneurs avaient initialement un style interpersonnel moins optimal, lorsqu’ils étaient moins stressés et pour les sports individuels. L’article 3 documente l’appréciation et l’utilité perçue du programme par les entraîneurs (ceux ayant participé à l’essai pilote contrôlé randomisé déjà mentionné). L’analyse de contenu des groupes de discussion suggère que les entraîneurs ont apprécié le contenu et la structure du programme, qu’ils étaient en mesure de mettre en pratique les habiletés apprises et qu’ils ont observé des effets bénéfiques du programme sur eux-mêmes (p. ex., connaissance de soi) et pour leurs athlètes (p. ex., engagement). De plus, des obstacles à l’utilisation des habiletés ont été nommés, dont la pandémie et les contextes de groupe. Enfin, les entraîneurs ont mentionné différents facteurs facilitant l’implantation des habiletés, dont leurs expériences passées, le fait que plusieurs entraîneurs d’une même équipe participent au programme en même temps et l’inclusion d’aspects théoriques de la TAD dans le programme. Mis ensemble, les résultats de la présente thèse suggèrent qu’il est possible de créer des environnements sportifs dans lesquels les athlètes peuvent performer tout en ayant un niveau élevé de bien-être. En soutenant l’autonomie (tout en offrant une structure, en étant impliqués et en évitant l’utilisation de comportements contrôlants), les entraîneurs pourraient, en effet, contribuer positivement au développement sportif des athlètes. Davantage d’études demeurent toutefois nécessaires afin de mieux comprendre le rôle simultané du style interpersonnel de différentes figures d’autorité et l’efficacité du programme reROOT. / Through their interactions with athletes, parents and coaches contribute to the creation of social environments that may benefit (or thwart) their sport development. Self-Determination Theory (SDT) proposes that by adopting an interpersonal style that includes autonomy support, structure, and involvement, paired with few controlling behaviors, these authority figures could promote athletes' well-being and performance. However, few studies have examined the simultaneous role of different authority figures. In addition, the ways in which it is possible to help coaches adopt an interpersonal style that promotes athletes’ sport development remains understudied. Indeed, although a few training programs exist, such as the reROOT program, these are limited in scope or are in their early stages of validation. The objectives of this thesis were thus to (1) verify whether coach and parent autonomy support predict athlete well-being and performance jointly or independently (article 1), (2) test the impact of the reROOT training program on coaches’ interpersonal style and on athlete well-being and performance using a pilot randomized controlled trial (article 2), and (3) assess coaches' appreciation and perceived usefulness of this program using focus groups (article 3). Article 1 included two questionnaire studies: one with 143 athletes from a variety of sports and levels and the other, with 109 high-performance men's soccer players. This article suggests that parents and coaches have independent roles in athletes’ sport development. Indeed, results of both studies show that parent and coach autonomy support were associated with athlete well-being. However, contrary to results of previous studies, these effects were additive rather than interactive. In addition, only coach autonomy support was associated with athlete performance. Article 2 presents the results of a pilot randomized controlled trial testing the effectiveness of the reROOT program  a training program teaching an interpersonal style favorable to athlete sport development, as defined by SDT. Coaches and athletes from 23 varsity sports teams were randomly assigned to two conditions: the experimental condition where coaches were invited to attend the program immediately, and the control condition where they were rather placed on a waiting list. Results revealed higher levels of self-reported interpersonal style among coaches who participated in the program, one year after the program ended. In addition, athletes in the experimental condition reported more autonomous motivation and tended to perform better two months after the end of the program compared to athletes in the control condition. However, no significant differences were found between the two conditions in terms of athletes' perceptions of their coaches' interpersonal style or in terms of their well-being and controlled motivation. Finally, moderation analyses suggest that the program may be more effective in certain contexts, namely when coaches initially had a less optimal interpersonal style, when they were less stressed, and for individual sports. Article 3 documents coaches' appreciation and perceived usefulness of the reROOT program (those who took part in the previously mentioned pilot randomized controlled trial). Content analysis of the focus groups suggests that coaches appreciated the content and structure of the program, were able to apply the skills they had learned, and observed benefits of the program for themselves (e.g., self-awareness) and their athletes (e.g., commitment). In addition, obstacles to skill implementation were named, including the pandemic and group settings. Finally, coaches mentioned various facilitating factors for skills implementation, including past experiences, having multiple coaches on the same team participating in the program at the same time, and the inclusion of SDT theory in the program. Taken together, results of this thesis suggest that it is possible to create sport environments in which athletes can perform while having a high level of well-being. By supporting autonomy (while providing structure, being involved, and avoiding the use of controlling behaviors), coaches could indeed contribute positively to athletes’ sport development. However, more research is needed to better understand the simultaneous role of different authority figures’ interpersonal style and the effectiveness of the reROOT program.