This PhD thesis in environmental science aims to contribute to the theoretical and empirical understanding of the relation between participation and legitimacy in multi-level environmental governance. It is widely assumed that actor involvement has great potential to improve the legitimacy of nature conservation through long-term acceptance and target achievement. However, local resource conflicts problematize the way a relation between participation and legitimacy is depicted on other administrative levels. Studies exploring the effect that participation has on legitimacy are relatively rare, especially in multi-level arrangements of coastal conservation. In this thesis the relation between participation and legitimacy on the local level is examined, as well as how this relation is conditioned by multi-level governance and power. The relation is empirical studied with two local implementation processes of the Helsinki Convention’s network of marine protected areas (HELCOM MPAs). The cases are located in Sweden. Sweden and the Baltic Sea region are in the forefront of participation in nature conservation, and therefore act as a strong case for the exploration of institutional participation. However, despite apparent political will and international support, the efficiency of actor involvement for nature conservation has been questioned, also for the HELCOM MPA and especially on the local level. Based on the results of this study, I question the assumption that weak legitimacy predominantly is an issue of insufficient information sharing. The findings show that involving actors to legitimize the adoption of strict adherence to a pre-established model of conservation likely fails to create long term support for conservation. Instead, relocation of power to the affected actors seems essential in order to make participation establish legitimacy. It appears important to create room for local influence in the design, management and implementation of a particular conservation area in the particular place/context. In both examined cases, there are elements of participation that support legitimacy, for example the development of a shared vision. There are also elements that hamper legitimacy, such as, for example, the high expectations different actors have on participation to reach consensus on protective values. These unmet expectations seem to fuel conflicts of interests among actors on different levels. / Världens hav är i kris. Med ett stort internationellt tryck för att skydda dem har den svenska regeringen satt ambitiösa mål för etablering av marina reservat. Beslutsfattare och forskare har höga förväntningar på att lokalt deltagande underlättar etableringen. Men utan verkliga möjligheter för lokalt deltagande att påverka besluten så verkar förväntningarna orealistiska, med allvarliga konsekvenser för legitimitet av miljöskydd. Avhandlingen undersöker relationen mellan deltagande och legitimitet i svensk östersjöförvaltning genom att studera samrådsprocesserna för Gräsö marina naturreservat och St Anna-Missjö marina skyddsområde. Studien visar på både positiva och negativa samband mellan deltagande och legitimitet, beroende på kvalitén av deltagande. Olika lokala aktörer är djupt engagerade i resursfrågor och vill ha möjlighet att diskutera dessa med staten. Lokala aktörer uttrycker besvikelse och frustration om samråden har en begränsad inverkan på faktiska beslut. Besvikelsen kan underminera stödet för naturskydd och försämra relationen mellan stat och lokala aktörer i längden. I ett av de undersökta fallen var de lokala aktörerna engagerade i att formulera en gemensam vision för området tillsammans med myndigheterna, något som annars är ovanligt. Det visade sig ha en mycket positiv effekt på samrådsprocessen och legitimiteten av naturskyddet.

Ausgehend von der Annahme, dass die Ostseeregion primär eine von Städten und urbanen Zentren geprägte Region ist, untersucht diese Studie die Entstehung und Entwicklung grenzüberschreitender Zusammenarbeit von Großstradtregionen im Ostseeraum. Auf der Grundlage poststrukturalistischer Forschungsansätze ergänzt durch Governancetheorien wird ein umfassendes theoretisches Instrumentarium erarbeitet, mit dem drei Fälle grenzüberschreitender Zusammenarbeit von Großstadtregionen aus der Ostseeregion untersucht werden. Die konzeptionelle Grundidee besteht hierbei darin, Vergleichbarkeit nicht durch die Anwendung vorher festgelegter Kriterien, sondern durch die Formulierung und Anwendung eines gleichbleibenden Katalogs offener Forschungsfragen herzustellen. Zunächst werden für diese Arbeit drei Einzelfallstudien zur Öresundregion, Göteborg-Oslo Region und der Euregio Helsinki-Tallinn erstellt. Dann werden in einer vergleichenden Gegenüberstellung Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede erarbeitet und auf dieser Grundlage Faktoren, welche die Entstehung und Entwicklung grenzüberschreitender Zusammenarbeit begünstigen, abgeleitet. Darüber hinaus rückt das Ergebnis der Analyse drei weitere Aspekte für die Entwicklung grenzüberschreitende Zusammenarbeit in den Mittelpunkt, die in angewendeten theoretischen Ansätzen bisher unberücksichtigt geblieben sind, die aber erheblichen Einfluss auf die Entwicklung der einzelnen Region haben: geographische Lage, Timing und Marginalisierung. / Based on the assumption that the Baltic Sea Region is primarily composed of cities and urban areas, this study explores the evolution and development of the cross-border cooperation of large urban areas in the Baltic Sea Region. Using post-structuralist theoretical approaches supplemented with governance theory, the study develops a comprehensive theoretical tool for the analysis of three cases of cross-border cooperation of urban areas in the Balitc Sea Region. The conceptual idea was to safeguard comparability through the application of a common set of open research questions, rather than to apply a set of pre-given criteria. First, this piece of research provides the three single case studies of the Oresund Region, the Gothenburg-Oslo Region and the Euregio Helsinki-Tallinn. Then a comparative analysis elaborates on the commonalities and differences and derives supporting factors for cross-border cooperation based on that background. Finally, the comparative analysis also points to three additional relevant aspects for the development of cross-border cooperation that have not been included into the theoretical approaches but which had remarkable influence on the development of the single cases: geographical localisation, timing and marginalisation.

Abstract The eutrophication of the Baltic Sea continues despite decrease of the external phosphorus load by as much as 80% of the target confirmed by HELCOM. The aim of this thesis is to investigate this paradox, critically evaluate previous explanations for the persistent eutrophication, and to introduce a new diagnosis and paradigm for the causes and processes behind eutrophication of the Baltic Sea. According to the current consensus, anthropogenic nutrient loading is nearly the sole cause of eutrophication and regular cyanobacterial blooms. However, this study shows that the areal phosphorus loading rate, when modeled properly, is surprisingly low, and unlikely to be the primary cause of eutrophication. Instead, the frequency of the salt water pulses has decreased dramatically during the past 40 years. This is the root cause of eutrophication, via the hyper-vicious cycle of the hypoxic and finally anoxic conditions of the deeps causing internal phosphorus loading, denitrification, and nitrogen and carbon fixation. Furthermore, this work confirms that nitrogen fixation increases in low nitrogen conditions, further increasing eutrophication and cyanobacterial blooms. Thus, the most effective way to break the cycle of eutrophication is to improve the oxygen conditions of the deeps, which really is impossible to achieve by decreasing external loading alone. A key result of this work is that natural processes, rather than human activity, plays a decisive role in the eutrophication process – a perspective that typically faces substantial resistance. This thesis discusses how sociological and political views have affected the scientific community and its pursuit to model the mechanisms of eutrophication of the Baltic Sea. In conclusion, this study leads to important novel insights by providing new models for calculating the external and internal phosphorus loads of the Baltic Sea, with results highlighting the importance of natural processes of internal loading from the anoxic deeps. Altogether, this thesis introduces a new a paradigm for eutrophication of the Baltic Sea. / Tiivistelmä Itämeri rehevöityy edelleen, vaikka fosforikuormitusta on vähennetty 80 % tavoitellusta. On siis syytä tutkia miksi Itämeren tila ei ole parantunut. Syntyneen ristiriidan ratkaisemiseksi tarkoituksena on etsiä aiemmista tulkinnoista ristiriitoja, korjata ne ja uudistaa tietopohja uudeksi ja toimivammaksi paradigmaksi. Virhetulkintojen tunnistamiseen sovelletaan Popperin falsifikaatiomenettelyn periaatteita. Konsensuksen mukaan ihmisperäinen kuormitus on lähes yksinomainen syy (sinilevä)rehevyyteen. Kuitenkin Vollenweiderin mallin mukaan tehty, hydrologialla painotettu fosforin pintakuormitus on ollut 1970 - 1980-luvuilla vain lievää rehevyyttä edellyttävällä tasolla. Ulkoinen kuormitus ei siten voi olla suurin rehevyyden aiheuttaja. Sinilevärehevyyttä ylläpitävänä päätekijänä on syvävesiin happea tuovien suolavesipulssien toistuvuuden romahtaminen. Siitä syntyneet syvävesien ja -pohjien hapettomuudet aiheuttavat Gotlanninmeressä sekä sisäistä kuormitusta että lisärehevöittävää typen- ja hiilensidontaa. Yhdessä näitä prosesseja nimitetään nyt supernoidankehäksi. Johtopäätöksiä: • Ihmistieteelliset ja ympäristöpoliittiset näkemykset vaikuttavat luonnontieteellisiin tulkintoihin luultua enemmän. • Suolavesipulssien harventuminen on hapettomuus- ja rehevyyskierteen perussyy. • Syvänteiden hapettomuus on kaikkialle negatiivisesti säteilevä keskeistekijä. • Itämeren supernoidankehä on purettava saattamalla syvänteet hapellisiksi. • Hapellisuutta ei voida saada aikaan ulkoisen kuormituksen vähentämisellä. • Jäljelle jäävät siten teknologiset keinot, joista toteutuskelvollisimmalta näyttää Itämeren hapellisimman ja kylmimmän veden pumppaus 30 metrin syvyydestä syvänteisiin, mikä tehostaa myös pulssivesien virtausta syvänteiden pohjalle. Tämä väitöskirja sisältää viisi vallitsevasta paradigmasta poikkeavaa tulosta: 1. Itämerelle on kehitetty rehevyyden uusi diagnoosi ja paradigma, 2. Luonto dominoi Itämeren tilaa, ei ihminen, 3. Typensidonnalla on lisärehevöittävä mekanismi, 4. Itämerelle on kehitetty uusi fosforin sisäkuormituksen laskentamenetelmä, 5. Virtuaalisen fosforikuormituksen laskenta. Ilman Gotlanninmeren syvänteiden hapellisuutta Itämeri on tuomittu pysymään rehevyyden supernoidankehässä, ’kaksinkertaisessa takalukossa’.

Deutlich ansteigende interkontinentale Handelsbeziehungen bilden die wesentliche Grundlage das Wachstum der Containerschifffahrt. Die Schnittstelle der Containerschifffahrt zu den landgebundenen Verkehrsträgern bilden Containerterminals. Deren Entwicklung muss im Zusammenhang mit der Containerschifffahrt gesehen werden. Die Entwicklung des Containerschifffahrtsmarktes wird sich auch in Zukunft weiter dynamisch fortsetzen. Prognosen zur Umschlagsentwicklung sind für die Containerterminals von besonderem Interesse, da die Containerterminals bestrebt sind, genügend Kapazitäten bereitzustellen. Im Umfeld eines Containerterminals sowie in ihnen selbst können diverse Kapazitätsengpässe entstehen. In vielen Fällen ist dringender Handlungsbedarf hinsichtlich der Beseitigung von potenziellen Engpässen gegeben. Eine Option stellt dabei der Neubau von Containerterminals dar. Der Hafenbau wird in dichtbesiedelten Räumen zunehmend schwieriger und teurer. Die aus heutiger Sicht zur Verfügung stehenden Flächen werden langfristig nicht ausreichen, um das Umschlagsaufkommen der Zukunft zu bewältigen. Deswegen kann die Errichtung von herkömmlichen Containerterminals langfristig nicht als ausschließliche Option zur Beseitigung von Umschlagsengpässen angesehen werden. Das Konzept eines Offshore-Containerterminals (OCT) stellt einen alternativen Ansatz dar, der zukünftige Engpässe vermeidet oder ihre Auswirkungen mindert. Ziel des Konzepts ist die Verlagerung von Transshipments von den herkömmlichen Containerterminals auf einen OCT. Dieses Konzept wird auf seine wirtschaftliche Tragfähigkeit untersucht. Letzlich stellt das Konzept des OCTs als Transshipment-Hub eine Möglichkeit dar, die unter heutigen Verhältnissen zwar unrentabel erscheint, unter zukünftigem Expansionsdruck und Kostensteigerungen bei der Erschließung neuer Terminalflächen jedoch als Konzept ökonomisch konkurrenzfähig sein kann und eventuell ohne Alternative ist.

The purpose of this study was to determine the limiting nutrient in a set of coastal areas and estuaries in the Baltic Sea. Although the subject as been studied for several decades, no clear consensus has been reached in the scientific community as to whether primary production is limited by phosphorus or nitrogen. A total of five coastal areas, all located on the east coast of Sweden, were assessed regarding their limiting nutrient by using three methods. The first method was applying linear regression analysis on measured TP and TN concentration together with chlorophyll-a and Secchi depth. The data was collected from sampling programs stretching back to the 1970s and 80s, studying the summer period May to September for all sites but one, were the period April to October was studied. The second method calculated the TN/TP ratio during the summer period and compared it to the Redfield ratio. Thirdly, basic mass-balance calculations were carried out, with empirical data on the external loads and calibrated with the yearly average concentration in the surface water (0–10 m). From the calculations, both the annual external and internal load of TP and TN was obtained. The different TP and TN loads were likewise tested for a correlation with the measured summer chlorophyll-a concentration and Secchi depth. The results of using linear regression analysis on measured concentrations were mostly inconclusive, as the TP and TN concentrations for all sites and most years were related to each other. Consequently both nutrients often gave equal correlation coefficients. Similarly the TP and TN loads also matched each other for most sites and years, inherently obtaining the same inconclusive, but also contradictory results, as when using the measured concentrations. The TN/TP ratio indicated, for one site that it was limited by phosphorus and another site possibly nitrogen limitation. The ratio in the other sites periodically dropped between nitrogen and phosphorus limitation over the years. Thus it was difficult to draw an overall conclusion as to what nutrient was the limiting one for all the sites. However analysing the results from the individual sites showed that three of the five sites had signs of phosphorus limitation. Two factors were deemed as being the main reasons as to why the methods did not achieve more conclusive results. The first factor was the empirical data, which varied in frequency and extent over the studied time periods and between sites, making representative concentrations difficult to calculate and evaluate. The second was the matching trends between both the concentrations and the loads of TP and TN. To achieve a better result one nutrient could be increased or decreased while one remains relatively constant. The problem with such an experiment would be controlling the inflow of nutrients from the adjacent sea. / Syftet med detta projekt var att bestämma det begränsande näringsämnet för ett antal kustområden i Östersjön. Frågan huruvida fosfor eller kväve är det begränsande näringsämnet i kustområden runt Östersjön har varit omdiskuterad under flera år och undersökts vid ett flertal tillfällen. I denna studie testades tre metoder, i fem olika kustområden, med syftet att fastställa det begränsande näringsämnet. Först användes linjär regressionsanalys med uppmätta värden på TP och TN koncentrationer tillsammans med klorofyll-a och Secchidjup. Empirisk data insamlades från övervakningsprogram där prover tagits sedan 1970- och 80-talet. Medelvärden beräknades för perioden maj till september för alla områden förutom ett, där undersöktes perioden april till oktober. Sommarmedelvärdena för TN/TP kvoten analyserades också för alla områden med avseende på Redfield kvoten. Slutligen genomfördes massbalansberäkningar med data för de externa belastningarna av TP och TN, dessa beräkningar kalibrerades sedan med uppmätta värden på koncentrationen i ytvattnet (0–10 m). Utifrån beräkningarna erhölls värden på den externa och den interna belastningen. Dessa belastningar testades med linjär regression för ett samband med de uppmätta värdena på Secchidjup och klorofyll-a. Metoden att använda linjär regressionsanalys med empiriskt uppmätta koncentrationer och djup, gav generellt ett oklart resultat. Detta var en följd av att halterna av både TP och TN i regel följdes åt, vilket fick konsekvensen att korrelationskoefficienterna för TP och TN ofta var lika stora. Samma problem uppstod för regressionsanalysen med belastningarna, då även dessa ofta följde varandra, men även motsade resultatet med koncentrationerna. Analysen av TN/TP kvoten tydde på att ett område var fosforbegränsat och ett område möjligen var kvävebegränsat. För de övriga tre områdena skiftade TN/TP kvoten under åren mellan kväve- och fosforbegränsning. De oklara resultaten gjorde det svårt att dra en övergripande slutsats. Däremot vid analysen av de enskilda områdena uppvisade tre av de fem områdena tecken på fosforbegränsning, även om detta inte kunde med säkerhet fastställas. Det var huvudsakligen två faktorer vars inverkan anses ha haft stor betydelse för det oklara resultatet. Den första faktorn var uppmätt data, vars frekvens och omfattning skiljde sig avsevärt mellan år och platser. Följaktligen försvårades beräkningarna av koncentrationerna och tillförlitligheten i hur representativa värdena var. Den andra och avgörande faktorn var de matchande trenderna hos både koncentrationerna och belastningarna. För att förbättra resultatet kan ett näringsämne ändras, medan det andra näringsämnet hålls relativt konstant. Problemet med att genomföra ett sådant experiment skulle vara att kontrollera inflödet av näringsämnen från närliggande hav.

High levels of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) in edible fish in the Baltic Sea have raised health concerns in the Baltic region and the rest of Europe. Thus, there are urgent needs to characterize sources in order to formulate effective mitigation strategies. The aim of this thesis is to contribute to a better understanding of past and present sources of PCDD/Fs in the Baltic Sea environment by exploring chemical fingerprints in sediments, air, and biota. The spatial and temporal patterns of PCDD/F distributions in the Baltic Sea during the 20th century were studied in Swedish coastal and offshore sediment cores. The results showed that PCDD/F levels peaked in 1975 (± 7 years) in coastal and 1991 (± 5 years) in offshore areas. The time trends of PCDD/Fs in the sediment cores also showed that environmental half-lives of these pollutants have been shorter in coastal than in offshore areas (15 ± 5 and 29 ± 14 years, respectively). Consequently, there have been remarkable recoveries in coastal areas, but slower recovery in offshore areas with 81 ± 12% and 38 ± 11% reductions from peak levels, respectively. Source-to-receptor multivariate modeling by Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) showed that six types of PCDD/F sources are and have been important for the Baltic Sea environment: PCDD/Fs related to i) atmospheric background, ii) thermal processes, iii) manufacture and use of tetra-chlorophenol (TCP) and iv) penta-chlorophenol (PCP), v) industrial use of elementary chlo- rine and the chloralkali-process (Chl), and vi) hexa-CDD sources. The results showed that diffuse sources (i and ii) have consistently contributed >80% of the total amounts in the Southern Baltic Sea. In the Northern Baltic Sea, where the biota is most heavily contaminated, impacts of local sources (TCP, PCP and Chl) have been higher, contributing ca. 50% of total amounts. Among the six sources, only Thermal and chlorophenols (ii-iv) have had major impacts on biota. The impact of thermal sources has, however, been declining as shown from source apportioned time-trend data of PCDD/Fs in Baltic herring. In contrast, impacts of chlorophenol-associated sources generally increased, remained at steady-state or slowly decreased during 1990-2010, suggesting that these sources have substantially contributed to the persistently high levels of PCDD/Fs in Baltic biota. Atmospheric sources of PCDD/Fs for the Baltic region (Northern Europe) were also investigated, and specifically whether the inclusion of parallel measurements of metals in the analysis of air would help back-tracking sources. PCDD/Fs and metals in high-volume air samples from a rural field station near the shore of the central Baltic Sea were measured. The study focused on the winter season and air from the S and E sectors, as these samples showed elevated levels of PCDD/Fs, particularly PCDFs. Several metals were found to correlate significantly with the PCDFs. The wide range of candidate metals as source markers for PCDD/F emissions, and the lack of an up-to-date extensive compilation of source characteristics for metal emission from vari- ous sources, limited the use of the metals as source markers. The study was not able to pin-point primary PCDD/F sources for Baltic air, but it demonstrated a new promising approach for source tracing of air emissions. The best leads for back-tracking primary sources of atmospheric PCDD/Fs in Baltic air were seasonal trends and PCDD/F congener patterns, pointing at non-industrial related thermal sources related to heating. The non-localized natures of the sources raise challenges for managing the emissions and thus societal efforts are required to better control atmospheric emissions of PCDD/Fs. / EcoChange / BalticPOPs

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are hydrophobic substances that readily sorb to organic matter in particles and colloids instead of being freely dissolved in the water phase. This sorption affects the bio­availability and environmental transport of the POPs. The major part of this thesis concerns the role of sediments as secondary sources of POPs. As the primary emissions decrease, contaminated sediments where POPs have accumulated can become the main source of contamination. If the contaminated sediment by time becomes covered with cleaner layers, the POPs are buried and no longer in contact with the aquatic environment. Experiments in this thesis showed, however, that new invading species can alter the sediment-water dynamics as a result of their bioturbation, i.e. mixing of sediment particles and pore-water. Marenzelleria spp., invading species in the Baltic Sea that burrow deeper than native species, were found to increase the remobilization of buried contaminants. The sediment-to-water flux was inversely related to the burial depth (2-10 cm) of the POP congeners (polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers) and also inversely related to the hydrophobicity of the congener. The flux was therefore most pronounced for less hydrophobic contaminants, which was linked to the bioirrigating behaviour of these species. Marenzelleria spp. also accumulated the buried POPs and increased concentrations in surface sedi­ment. Contaminants previously considered buried at a ’safe’ depth can thus be remobilized as a result of the invasion of Marenzelleria spp. in the Baltic Sea. One method to decrease the remobilization of contaminants from sediments is ’capping’, i.e. a layer of clean material is placed as a cap on the sediment. By amending the cap with active materials, which sequester the POPs and decrease their availability, thinner layers can be used (’active capping’ or ’thin-layer capping’). Results from an experiment with thin-layer capping using different active materials (activated carbon (AC) and kraft lignin) showed that both the sediment-to-water flux and the bioaccumulation by benthic species of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and octachlorostyrene (OCS) decreased with increased thick­ness of the cap layer (0.5-5 cm). Amendments with active materials further increased the cap efficiency. AC was more efficient than kraft lignin, and a 3 cm cap with 3.3% AC reduced the flux and bioaccumulation with ~90%. The reduction of the sediment-to-water flux was inversely related to the hydrophobicity of the POP, and reductions in the flux had similar magnitudes as reductions in the concentration in deep-burrowing polychaetes, demonstrating the importance of bioturbation for sediment-to-water transport. In a one-year study on the levels of PCDD/Fs, PCBs, and HCB in a coastal area of the Baltic Sea, the correlations between the POP levels and the levels of particles and organic carbon in the water were found to differ for POPs of different structure and hydrophobicity. The levels of PCDD/Fs decreased to one third in May, which could be related to the increased sedimentation, i.e. water-to-sediment transport, during spring bloom.

Deutlich ansteigende interkontinentale Handelsbeziehungen bilden die wesentliche Grundlage das Wachstum der Containerschifffahrt. Die Schnittstelle der Containerschifffahrt zu den landgebundenen Verkehrsträgern bilden Containerterminals. Deren Entwicklung muss im Zusammenhang mit der Containerschifffahrt gesehen werden. Die Entwicklung des Containerschifffahrtsmarktes wird sich auch in Zukunft weiter dynamisch fortsetzen. Prognosen zur Umschlagsentwicklung sind für die Containerterminals von besonderem Interesse, da die Containerterminals bestrebt sind, genügend Kapazitäten bereitzustellen. Im Umfeld eines Containerterminals sowie in ihnen selbst können diverse Kapazitätsengpässe entstehen. In vielen Fällen ist dringender Handlungsbedarf hinsichtlich der Beseitigung von potenziellen Engpässen gegeben. Eine Option stellt dabei der Neubau von Containerterminals dar. Der Hafenbau wird in dichtbesiedelten Räumen zunehmend schwieriger und teurer. Die aus heutiger Sicht zur Verfügung stehenden Flächen werden langfristig nicht ausreichen, um das Umschlagsaufkommen der Zukunft zu bewältigen. Deswegen kann die Errichtung von herkömmlichen Containerterminals langfristig nicht als ausschließliche Option zur Beseitigung von Umschlagsengpässen angesehen werden. Das Konzept eines Offshore-Containerterminals (OCT) stellt einen alternativen Ansatz dar, der zukünftige Engpässe vermeidet oder ihre Auswirkungen mindert. Ziel des Konzepts ist die Verlagerung von Transshipments von den herkömmlichen Containerterminals auf einen OCT. Dieses Konzept wird auf seine wirtschaftliche Tragfähigkeit untersucht. Letzlich stellt das Konzept des OCTs als Transshipment-Hub eine Möglichkeit dar, die unter heutigen Verhältnissen zwar unrentabel erscheint, unter zukünftigem Expansionsdruck und Kostensteigerungen bei der Erschließung neuer Terminalflächen jedoch als Konzept ökonomisch konkurrenzfähig sein kann und eventuell ohne Alternative ist.

- The thesis is focused on relations between Sweden and Brandenburg in the years 1660 - 1701. Although Sweden is considered as an empire practically all over the 17th century, a new, important power rises in its neighbourhood, namely Brandenburg-Prussia, and this rise is finished by the Royal coronation of Fredrick I in 1701. Main part of the thesis is dedicated to the political and military relations, less to the cultural relations. Even other countries, following and protecting their interests in the Baltic region, are taken into account, especially Denmark and France. The aim of the thesis is to analyse relations between Sweden and Brandenburg and to try to find an answer on the question, if Sweden's focus on its internal problems and reforms contributed to the rise of Prussia or if there is no direct connection between these two tendencies. Key terms - Swedish Imperial Period, regency, Charles XI, Charles XII, Louis XIV, Elector Fredrick William, Elector Fredrick III, Scanian War, foreign policy, Baltic Sea hegemony

In the future, the cultivation of algae for food may become increasingly important in Sweden. But this area is still new in Europe and most of the harvest today comes from wild stocks. In Sweden, cultivation is only available on the west coast, but research is underway to see if it is possible to start cultivating macroalgae in the Baltic Sea as well. The Baltic Sea has completely different biological conditions than the west coast, and one of the challenges is the low salinity, which limits the species that can live in the Baltic Sea. This is something that the Marine Center in Simrishamn is also researching in the project Tångkusten, of which this study is a part of. The purpose of this study is to use a literature study to compile available knowledge about which algae that has the potential to be cultivated in the future and what the life cycles of these algae look like. An inventory of the macroalgae found locally in Hanöbukten was also carried out. Based on this information, possible cultivation methods and the advantages of each species are discussed, but also the challenges that may arise.  The results showed that the most abundant species were filamentous brown algae, bladder wrack and saw wrack . The species deemed most cultivable are gut weed and sea lettuce. Clawed fork weed, bladder wrack and saw wrack are also considered to have some cultivation potential. Among the biggest challenges are the growth of epiphytic algae and finding a suitable site for cultivation. / Projektet Tångkusten på Marint centrum i Simrishamn