A hiperalgesia inflamatória é o processo pelo qual ocorre a sensibilização dos neurônios nociceptores aferentes primários por mediadores químicos inflamatórios, gerando assim uma diminuição do limiar nociceptivo e como consequência episódios de dor. Entre os principais mediadores envolvidos com a sensibilizacão das fibras nociceptivas periféricas está a prostaglandina E2 (PGE2), que é liberada como um produto final de uma cascata de mediadores inflamatórios. Dentro desta cascata de liberação hierárquica podemos destacar a interleucina -1? (IL)-1?, uma citocina importante na gênese da dor inflamatória, devido à sua capacidade de induzir a produção da enzima cicloxigenase-2 (COX-2), e consequentemente PGE2. O mecanismo de controle da produção da IL-1 ? envolvem dois passos intracelulares: a indução da expressão de uma forma protêica inativa (a pró-IL-1 ?) e a geração da forma biologicamente ativa (IL-1?) a partir da pró-IL-1 ?. Este último passo envolve a ação de uma cisteína-protease ativada em decorrência de um processo inflamatório, conhecida como Caspase-1, a qual cliva a pró-IL-1? em IL1?. Recentemente, nosso grupo demonstrou que a caspase-1 tem um papel importante na gênese da dor inflamatória, sendo crucial para a geração de IL-1? e consequentemente COX2/PGE2. Porém, não são conhecidos os mecanismos de ativação da caspase-1 na hiperalgesia inflamatória. Sabe-se que a ativação da Caspase-1 e clivagem da pro-IL-1? são dependentes de uma plataforma molecular intracelular denominada inflamassoma. Os principais inflamassomas ativadores de caspase-1 são formados pelas proteínas NLRP3, IPAF (NLRC4) e por sua molécula adaptadora ASC. O objetivo desse trabalho então foi avaliar a participação do inflamassoma na gênese da dor inflamatória. Nós identificamos que as moléculas IPAF e ASC, mas não o NLRP3, participa no desenvolvimento da hiperalgesia inflamatória mecânica e térmica induzida pela carragenina. Observou-se que estas moléculas são cruciais para a ativação da Caspase-1 e, consequentemente, para a produção da IL-1? ativa. Estes resultados evidenciam pela primeira vez um papel importante do inflamassoma no desenvolvimento da hiperalgesia inflamatória. / The inflammatory hyperalgesic is the process by which occurs the sensitization of nociceptors primary afferent neurons by inflammatory chemical mediators, that generating a decreased nociceptive threshold and result in episodes of pain. Among the main of nociceptive mediators involved with sensitization of peripheral nociceptive fibers are prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), which is released as a final product of a cascade of inflammatory mediators. Within this hierarchical cascade of release can highlight interleukin-1? (IL)-1?, a cytokine important in the genesis of inflammatory pain due to their ability to induce the production of the enzyme cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and consequently PGE2. The control mechanism production of intracellular IL-1 ? involved two steps: induction of expression of a protein inactive form (pro-IL-1 ?) and the generation of the biologically active form from pro-IL-1 ? (IL-1?). This last step involves the action of a cysteine protease-activated due to an inflammatory process, known as Caspase-1, which cleaves pro-IL-1? to IL-1?. Recently our group has demonstrated that caspase-1 plays an important role in the genesis of inflammatory pain, crucial for the generation of IL-1? and consequently COX2/PGE2. However, there aren\'t known mechanisms of activation of caspase-1 in inflammatory hyperalgesic. It is known that the activation of Caspase-1 cleavage and pro-IL-1? are dependent on an intracellular molecular platform called inflammassome. The main inflammassome activators of caspase-1 proteins are formed by NLRP3, IPAF (NLRC4) and its adapter molecule ASC. The aim of this study was to evaluate the inflammassome participation in the genesis of inflammatory pain. We have identified molecules IPAF and ASC, but not NLRP3, is participate in the development of mechanical and thermal inflammatory hyperalgesic induced by carrageenan. It was observed that these molecules are crucial for the activation of Caspase-1 and thus for the production of active IL-1?. These results demonstrate for the first time an important role of the inflammassome in the development of inflammatory hyperalgesic.

Three dimensional printing (3DP) is one of the most important solid freeform fabrication (SFF) methods that can produce any material with desired 3D shape by using suitable powder-binder formulations. It differs from the standard molding operations in that it can produce a complicated shapes by a software driven instrument in a laminated fashion and the cost is lower. This method can be applied in a very wide area including drug release operations, biomaterial production especially for bone fixation, prototype production for all purposes, wound dressing etc. It can also be used in obtaining edible objects by using natural polysaccharides with water based binders. In this study, it is aimed to understand the gelling behaviour of some of the gelling materials, which are alginates, pectins and carageenans, and effect of various factors on the production of confectionary objects by means of 3DP process. Effect of multivalent cations, especially Ca2+ ion, on the gelling behaviour of these materials are investigated. The egg-box structure obtained between the polymer segments increases the water holding capacity of the materials and much more chewy structures can be obtained. The molecular changes are followed by Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). In 3DP applications, the composition of powder and binder, pH, temperature, relative humidity (RH) and machine parameters are important factors affecting the texture of the final object. The texture of the produced specimens is examined by using a texture analyzer and maximum force values are given as g/cm at failure. Alginate and carrageenans are found to be more effective in obtaining chewy textures with Ca2+ ion content in sugar based matrices and optimization of machine parameters are performed to obtain a higher resolution on the specimens.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-04-01T14:16:04Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 2775324 bytes, checksum: ce5694da4c072e08c6fa70d415e06035 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-02-21 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / Lectins are proteins or glycoproteins of non-immune origin that have at least one non-catalytic site which binds reversibly to carbohydrates and glycoconjugates, which makes them ideal models for studies of cell-cell interactions and cell-virus, being good models for the design of new drugs. Some carbohydrate-binding proteins resembling the lectins but with some structural and functional differences, that exclude of this group. The Fabaceae Acacia farnesiana has in its seeds an agglutinin chitin-binding (AFAL), classified as PHA-like1. Its standard chromatographic revealed time-dependent oligomerization. This dynamic behavior complicates the protein crystallization and determining of the three dimensional structure. To better understand the structure-function relationship, this study aimed to examine AFAL anti-inflammatory activity through structural comparison with legume lectins. For both, it was the molecular modeling and docking with a glycan and carrageenan. AFAL model is folded as a β sandwich, which differs from the template used (Pisum sativum lectin) in loop regions, number of β-sheets and carbohydrate site. The docking showed that the protein binds to the carrageenan and glycan at different sites, which can be explained by absence of the sixth β-sheet (frontal β-sheets) and two β-sheets in posterior region. The A. farnesiana agglutinin can inhibit carrageenan induced inflammation due binding it, preventing its entrance into the cell and triggers the inflammatory process reactions. / Lectinas são proteínas e/ou glicoproteínas de origem não imune que possuem, no mínimo, um sítio não-catalítico que se liga de forma reversível a carboidratos e glicoconjugados, o que as tornam modelos ideais de estudos de interações célula-célula, célula-vírus, sendo bons modelos para o desenho de novos fármacos. Algumas proteínas possuem capacidade de se ligar a carboidratos, assemelhando-se às lectinas, porém com algumas diferenças estruturais e funcionais, que as excluem desse grupo. A Fabaceae Acacia farnesiana possui em suas sementes uma aglutinina ligante de quitina (AFAL), classificada como PHA-like1. Seu padrão cromatográfico revelou oligomerização tempo-dependente. Esse comportamento dinâmico dificulta a cristalização dessa proteína, bem como determinação da estrutura tridimensional. Visando compreender melhor a relação estrutura-função, este trabalho teve por objetivo analisar a atividade anti-inflamatória de AFAL através de comparação estrutural com lectinas de leguminosas. Para tanto, fez-se a modelagem e docking molecular com um glicano e a carragenina. A AFAL apresentou um modelo dobrado como um sanduiche de folhas β, que difere do molde utilizado (lectina de Pisum sativum) em regiões de loops, no número de folhas β e no sítio de ligação à carboidratos. O docking revelou que a proteína se liga à carragenina e ao glicano em sítios diferentes, o que pode ser explicado pela ausência de uma sexta folha β frontal e de duas folhas β na região posterior. A aglutinina de A. farnesiana pode inibir a inflamação causada por carragenina, por se ligar a ela, impedindo sua entrada na célula e o desencadeamento de reações típicas do processo inflamatório.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T14:03:35Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 LeonardoARS_DISSERT.pdf: 3694454 bytes, checksum: 6813d4e2275c599aa11e18b29a511e71 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-09-17 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient?fico e Tecnol?gico / Galactans are polysaccharides sulfated present in the cell wall of red algae. Carrageenans are galactans well known in the food industry as gelling polysaccharides and for induce inflammatory process in rodents as animal model. The extraction of polysaccharides from A. multifida has been carried out by proteolysis and precipitation in different volumes of acetone, which produced three fractions (F1, F2, and FT). Chemical and physical analyses revealed that these fractions are sulfated galactan predominantly. Results of the antioxidant activity assays showed that all of these fractions have antioxidant activity and that was associated with sulfate content of the analysis of reducing power and total antioxidant capacity. However, these fractions were not effective against lipid peroxidation. The fraction FT presented higher activity on the APTT test at 200 &#956;g (> 240 s). The assessment of the hemolytic activity showed that the FT fraction has the best activity, increasing lyses by the complement system to 42.3% (50 &#956;g) (p< 0,001). The fraction FT showed the best yield, anticoagulant and hemolytic activity between the three fractions and therefore it was choose for the in vivo studies. The Inflammation assessment using the FT fraction (50 mg / kg MB) showed that the cellular migration and the IL-6 production increased 670.1% (p< 0,001) and 531.8% (p< 0,001), respectively. These results confirmed its use as an inflammation inducer in animal model. Cytotoxicity assay results showed that all fractions have toxic effects on 3T3 and HeLa cells after exposition of 48 hours, except when 100 &#956;g for both F1 and FT were used. These results arise the discussion whether these polysaccharides it should be used as additive in foods, cosmetics and medicines. / Galactanas s?o polissacar?deos sulfatados presentes na parede celular de algas vermelhas. Carragenanas s?o galactanas bem conhecidas na ind?stria de alimentos como polissacar?deos gelificantes e para induzir o processo inflamat?rio em roedores como modelo animal. A extra??o de polissacar?deos de A. multifida foi realizada por prote?lise e precipita??o em diferentes volumes de acetona, que produziu tr?s fra??es (F1, F2, e FT). An?lises f?sicas e qu?micas revelaram que essas fra??es s?o predominantemente galactanas sulfatados. Resultados dos ensaios de atividade antioxidante mostraram que todas essas fra??es apresentam atividade antioxidante e que esteve associada ao teor de sulfato na an?lise da redu??o da pot?ncia e capacidade antioxidante total. No entanto, estas fra??es n?o foram eficazes contra a peroxida??o lip?dica. A fra??o FT apresentou maior atividade no teste de APTT a 200 mg (> 240 s). A avalia??o da atividade hemol?tica mostrou que a fra??o FT tem a melhor atividade, aumentando a lise pelo sistema complemento para 42,3% (50 mg) (p< 0,001). A fra??o FT apresentou o melhor rendimento, atividade anticoagulante e hemol?tica entre as tr?s fra??es e por isso foi escolhido para os estudos in vivo. A avalia??o da inflama??o com a fra??o FT (50 mg / kg MB) mostrou que a migra??o celular e a produ??o de IL-6 aumentaram 670,1% (p< 0,001) e 531,8% (p< 0,001), respectivamente. Estes resultados confirmam a sua utiliza??o como indutor de inflama??o em modelo animal. Resultados do teste de citotoxicidade mostraram que todas as fra??es t?m efeitos t?xicos nas c?lulas 3T3 e HeLa ap?s a exposi??o de 48 horas, exceto quando 100 mg para os F1 e FT foram utilizados. Estes resultados levantam a discuss?o se estes polissacar?deos devem ser usados como aditivo em alimentos, cosm?ticos e medicamentos

Orientadores: Rosiane Lopes da Cunha, Miriam Dupas Hubinger / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-10T19:31:23Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Neves_EdmeiaSabadini_D.pdf: 3460318 bytes, checksum: 852074cc798cd99ff46cf910e7887c71 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008 / Resumo: Foram estudadas as interações entre as proteínas do leite e a carragena em sistemas acidificados com glucona-delta-lactona (GDL) contendo ou não co-solutos, como açúcar (sacarose) e a mistura salina KCl/NaCl, na formação/obtenção de géis. Foi possível avaliar o efeito das variáveis de composição (concentrações de caseinato de sódio, concentrado protéico do soro, carragena, sacarose ou mistura salina KCl/NaCl) e condições de processo (temperatura de mistura dos componentes, tempo de aquecimento e velocidade de agitação) nas propriedades mecânicas e da capacidade de retenção de água dos géis protéicos acidificados, utilizando a metodologia de planejamento experimental fatorial. Essas análises foram complementadas com microscopia eletrônica de varredura e calorimetria diferencial de varredura. Nos géis obtidos com adição de sacarose verificou-se que a concentração de carragena foi a variável de maior contribuição ao aumento da dureza, deformabilidade e firmeza dos géis. Através dos ensaios de relaxação de tensões, verificou-se que o módulo elástico foi fortemente influenciado pelas interações entre a carragena e o caseinato de sódio, na presença do açúcar. O gel mais forte foi obtido em altas concentrações de biopolímeros, sendo o efeito da sacarose associado à diminuição das interações polissacarídeo-solvente. Na análise dos ensaios de ruptura e de relaxação de tensões constatou-se que os géis com a adição da mistura salina (KCl/NaCl), comportaram-se de maneira diferente dos com e sem sacarose. Foram estruturalmente muito mais frágeis e, em certas formulações, não se formou gel, sendo a força iônica e a temperatura de processo, as variáveis que definiram as características reológicas do sistema com sal. Pode-se observar o efeito negativo da concentração do concentrado protéico do soro (CPS) nas propriedades mecânicas do gel lácteo. Na avaliação da capacidade de retenção de água nos sistemas contendo sal, o comportamento foi totalmente diferente do da sacarose. A adição do açúcar promoveu o fortalecimento da rede do gel, com uma malha mais firme e coesa ao contrário do observado para os géis com adição da mistura salina KCL/NaCl / Abstract: Gel formation due to interactions between milk proteins and carrageenan in systems acidified by glucono-delta-lactona (GDL) with or without co-solutes like sugar (sucrose) and KCl/NaCl, were studied. A factorial experimental design was used to determine the effect of several variables, such as: the composition of the system (concentrations of sodium caseinate, whey protein concentrate, carrageenan and sucrose or a KCl/NaCl mixture); the process conditions (temperature of the mixture, heating time and stirring speed), on the mechanical properties of the acidified gels, as well as their water holding capacity. Scanning Electronic Microscopy and Differential Scanning Calorimetry were also used to complement the studies. In the gels containing sucrose, the concentration of carrageen was the more important variable with respect to the increase in hardness, rigidity and consistence of the gels. Using the stress relaxation experiments, it was observed that the elastic modulus was highly affected by the interactions between the carrageenan and sodium caseinate if sucrose was present. The strongest gel was obtained with the higher concentrations of the biopolymers, and this can be attributed to a decrease in the interactions between the polysaccharides and the water. In the presence of salts (KCl/NaCl) the stress relaxation and rupture experiments showed that the gels obtained were different from those obtained with the addition of sucrose or without a solute. The gels containing salts were much weaker and in some cases failed to form a gel. For these gels, the ionic strength and the temperature were the more important variables affecting the rheological properties of the gels. On the other hand, a negative effect of the concentration of whey protein concentrate on the mechanical properties of the lacteous gels could also be observed, due to strong interactions between the sodium caseinate and carrageenan. In terms of the water holding capacity, the behaviors of the gels containing salts and sucrose were again completely different. In the presence of sucrose, the molecular structure of the gel became stronger and cohesive, the opposite effect being observed in gels containing salts (KCl/NaCl) / Doutorado / Doutor em Engenharia de Alimentos

This diploma thesis focuses on the study of temperature dependence of -carrageen, hyaluronan of low molecular weight (250–450 kDa) and hyaluronan of high molecular weight (1 500–1 750 kDa) in aqueous solutions. The description of temperature depending changes in properties of these substance is based on rheological method. This work concentrates on the characterization of viscoelasticity through measurement of the storage (elastic) and loss (viscous) modulus using -carrageen and hyaluronan solutions of different molecular weights and different concentrations depending on temperature (20–50 °C, alternatively, in carrageen, 20–80 °C). The temperature dependence was further measured using an uncommon technique called high resolution ultrasonic spectroscopy (HR-US) which measured relative velocity of selected concentrations of -carrageen and hyaluronan of high molecular weight depending on the temperature of heating and cooling (20–80 °C). The measurements of temperature dependence were carried out for varied oscillation frequencies of rheometer sensor/frequency of ultrasonic waves. Knowledge of temperature dependence of the investigated substances may be applied in drug chemistry, primarily with respect to degradation due to high temperatures. The measured data gives information about sol-gel temperature and gel-sol temperature of carrageen.

1 Abstract This doctoral thesis is focused on the synthesis and characterization of novel hybrid polysaccharide-based polymers applicable for biomedicine, specifically for a conceptually new bimodal cancer treatment - immunoradiotherapy. For this purpose, polysaccharides β-glucan from Auricularia auricula-judae and κ-carrageenan from Kappaphycus alvarezii, exhibiting immunostimulatory and anticancer activities, were chosen to be grafted with thermoresponsive poly(2-isopropyl-2-oxazoline-co-2-butyl-2-oxazoline)s (POXs) (with different graft lengths and grafting densities) that induced a lower critical solution temperature of the final polymers. The thermoresponsive behavior of resulting polymers was studied with temperature-dependent light scattering methods, fluorescence measurements and also nuclear magnetic spectroscopy to select a polymer material with the most suitable properties for the intended application, aiming at a polymer depot formation after the injection of a polymer solution into the body. The chosen polymer, β-glucan-graft-POX with graft length of 2500 Da, was then modified to bear 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10- tetraacetic acid and a fluorescent dye Dyomics-615 at the graft ends and tested first in vitro to investigate its immunostimulatory properties and also the cellular uptake....

Yes / The aim of this work was to investigate the feasibility of cross-linker free polyelectrolyte complex formation at the nanoscale between carrageenan (CAR) and protamine (PROT). The properties of CAR/PROT nanoparticles (NPs) were dependent on the carrageenan type: kappa (KC), iota (IC) and lambda (LC), concentration of components, addition of divalent cations, weight mixing ratio (WMR) of constituents and mode of component addition. In the case of 0.1% w/v solutions, IC-based NPs had the smallest particle sizes (100-150nm) and low polydispersity indices (0.1-0.4). A decrease in the solution concentration from 0.1% to 0.05% w/v enabled the formation of KC/PROT NPs. All carrageenans exhibited the ability to form NPs with surface charge ranging from -190 to 40mV. The inclusion of divalent cations caused an increase in the particle size and zeta potential. Infrared analysis confirmed the presence of a complex between CAR and PROT and showed that IC chains undergo structural changes when forming NPs. Colloidal stability of NPs was related to the initial surface charge of particles and was time- and pH-dependent. IC was found to be the most suitable type of CAR when forming nanoplexes with PROT.

Este estudo se propôs a avaliar o efeito do gás sulfídrico (H2S), produzido endogenamente em mamíferos, na sinovite induzida pela injeção intra-articular de carragenina (CGN) no joelho de ratos Wistar (250 g). Ratos foram tratados (-60 min) com indometacina, o inibidor da cistationina <font face=\"Symbol\">g-liase DL-propargilglicine (PGly) ou doador de H2S reagente de Lawesson ( LR).Os parâmetros funcionais e bioquímicos foram avaliados 4h após. Ratos com sinovite exibiram dor, alodinia e edema articular. Na cavidade articular foram mensurados níveis elevados de neutrófilos (> MPO), nitração de resíduos protéicos (3-NT), atividade da iNOS, NOx-, caspase-1, IL-1<font face=\"Symbol\">&#946 e via NF-<font face=\"Symbol\">kB. O LR ou indometacina, mas não PGly, reduziu significativamente a nocicepção, edema e marcadores inflamatórios, exceto iNOS, NOx-, 3-NT e NF-<font face=\"Symbol\">kB. A PGly não modificou a dor e inflamação, mas aumentou o numero de macrófagos e atividade da iNOS (NOx-) e AP-1. Conclui-se que, enquanto a administração exógena do LR produz efeitos antiinflamatórios e anti-nociceptivos, o H2S endógeno exerce pouco efeito anti-sinovite. / In this study we evaluated the effects of exogenous and endogenous H2S on Wistar rat knee synovitis induced by the intra-articular injection of carrageenan (CGN). One hour prior to CGN injection, Rats were pre-treated with indomethacin, an inhibitor of H2S formation (DL-propargylglycine) or an H2S donor Lawessons reagent (LR). CGN evoked knee inflammation, as characterized by impaired gait, secondary allodynia of the hindpaw, joint swelling, neutrophil infiltration, increased MPO, 3-NT residues, inducible NOS (iNOS) activity and NOx-, caspase-1 and NF-<font face=\"Symbol\">kB activation. Pretreatment with LR or indomethacin significantly attenuated the pain and all the inflammatory / biochemical changes, except for the increased iNOS activity, NOx- and 3-NT. PGly potentiated synovial iNOS activity (and NOx-), enhanced macrophage infiltration and AP-1 activation, but had no effect on oedema and pain. Whereas exogenous H2S delivered to the knee joint can produce a significant anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive effect, locally produced H2S exerts little immunomodulatory effect.

Macromolecular biomaterials often require covalent crosslinking to achieve adequate stability and mechanical strength for their given application. However, the use of auxiliary chemicals may be associated with long-term toxicity in the body. Oppositely-charged polyelectrolytes (PEs) have the advantage that they can self-crosslink electrostatically and those derived from marine organisms are an inexpensive alternative to glycosaminoglycans present in the extracellular matrix of human tissues. A range of different combinations of PEs and preparation conditions have been reported in the literature. However, although there has been some work on complex formation between chitosan (CS) and carrageenan (CRG), much of the work undertaken has ignored the effect of pH on the consequent physicochemical properties of self-crosslinked polyelectrolyte complex (PEC) gels, films and scaffolds. Chitosan is a positively-charged polysaccharide with NH3+ side groups derived from shrimp shells and, carrageenan is a negatively-charged polysaccharide with OSO3- side groups derived from red seaweed. These abundant polysaccharides possess advantageous properties such as biodegradability and low toxicity. However, at present, there is no clear consensus on the cell binding properties of CS and CRG or CS-CRG PEC materials. The aim of this study was to explore the properties of crosslinker-free PEC gels, solvent-cast PEC films and freeze-dried PEC scaffolds based on CS and CRG precursors for medical applications. The objective was to characterise the effect of pH of the production conditions on the physicochemical and biological properties of CS-CRG PECs. Experimental work focused on the interaction between PEs, the composition of PECs, the rheological properties of PEC gels and the mechanical properties of PEC films and scaffolds. In addition, cell and protein attachment to the PEC films was assessed to determine their interactions in a biological environment. For biomedical applications, these materials should ideally be stable when produced such that they can be processed to form either a film or a scaffold and have mechanical properties comparable to those of collagenous soft tissues. FTIR was used to confirm PEC formation. Zeta potential measurements indicated that the PECs produced at pH 2-6 had a high strength of electrostatic interaction with the highest occurring at pH 4-5. This resulted in stronger intra-crosslinking in the PEC gels which led to the formation of higher yield, solid content, viscosity and fibre content in PEC gels. The weaker interaction at pH 7-12 resulted in higher levels of CS incorporated into the complex and the formation of inter-crosslinking through entanglements between PEC units. This resulted in the production of strong and stiff PEC films and scaffolds appropriate for soft tissue implants. The PECs prepared at pH 7.4 and 9 also exhibited low swelling and mass loss, which was thought to be due to the high CS content and entanglements. From the range of samples tested, the PECs produced at pH 7.4 appeared to show the optimum combination of yield, stability and homogeneity for soft tissue implants. Biological studies were performed on CS, CRG and PECs prepared at pH 3, 5, 7.4 and 9. All of the PE and PEC films were found to be non-cytotoxic. When the response of three different cell types and a high binding affinity protein (tropoelastin) was evaluated; it was found that the CS-CRG PEC films displayed anti-adhesive properties. Based on these experimental observations and previous studies, a mechanistic model of the anti-adhesive behaviour of PEC surfaces was proposed. It was therefore concluded that the CS-CRG PECs produced might be suitable for non-biofouling applications.