The elasticity of factor substitution between capital and labor is a crucial parameter in many economic fields. However, despite extensive research, there is no agreement on its value. Utilizing 738 estimates from 41 studies published between 1961 and 2016, this paper provides the first meta-regression analysis of capital-labor substitution elasticities for the U.S. economy. We show that heterogeneity in reported estimates is driven by the choice of estimation equations, the modeling of technological dynamics, and data characteristics. Based on the underlying meta-regression sample and a "best practice" specification, we estimate a long-run elasticity in the range of 0.6 to 0.7. For all estimated elasticities the hypothesis of a Cobb-Douglas production function is rejected.

This paper reviews the status quo of the empirical and theoretical literature on the determinants of the elasticity of substitution between capital and labor. Our focus is on the two-input constant elasticity of substitution (CES) production function. By example of the U.S., we highlight the distinctive heterogeneity in empirical estimates of σ at both the aggregate and industrial level and discuss potential methodological explanations for this variation. The main part of this survey then focuses on the determinants of σ. We first review several approaches to the microfoundation of production functions, especially the CES production function. Second, we outline the construction of an aggregate elasticity of substitution (AES) in a multi-sectoral framework and investigate its dependence on underlying sectoral elasticities. Third, we discuss the influence of the institutional framework on the determination of σ. The concluding section of this review identifies a number of potential empirical and theoretical avenues for future research. Overall, we demonstrate that the effective elasticity of substitution (EES), which is typically estimated in empirical studies, is generally not an immutable deep parameter but depends on a multitude of technological, non-technological and institutional determinants.

Företaget X etablerades under andra halvan av 1900-talet med målet att utveckla högkvalitativa hjälpmedel som till exempel rullstolar. Det företaget strävar efter är att användaren ska kunna sitta på ett sådant sätt att de kan uppnå maximal rörelseförmåga och aktivitetsgrad utifrån de individuella förutsättningarna. Syftet med projektet är att undersöka den totala miljöpåverkan hos en av Företaget X’s rullstolar, med en användning på 13 år, med hjälp av en livscykelanalys samt även skapa en grund för vidare hållbarhetsarbete. Utifrån resultatet av livscykelanalysen skulle förslag på förbättringar som, om möjligt, minskar produktens miljöpåverkan tas fram. Undersökningen är baserad på två marknader, marknad 1 där rullstolen resthanteras efter varje användare, och marknad 2 där rullstolen rekonditioneras samt återanvänds efter varje användare tills det att den resthanteras. Den insamlade informationen visade att en användare använder en rullstol i ungefär 4,3 år, vilket innebär att den, under sin livstid, används av tre användare innan den slutligen resthanteras. I marknad 1 undersöks därför tre rullstolar som resthanteras efter 4,3 år och i marknad 2 undersöks en rullstol som återanvänds samt rekonditioneras två gånger och slutligen resthanteras efter tredje användaren. Projektet är indelad i två faser, fas 1 där undersökning och analyser med hjälp av datorprogrammet SimaPro genomförs samt fas 2 där förslag på förbättringar tas fram med hjälp av LCA-verktygen, 10 Golden Principles och 5-Layer Approach. Resultaten från fas 1 visade att tillverkningsfasen samt ramen hade högst påverkan, och att det som orsakade de höga värdena var tillverkningsprocessen av aluminium. Värdena från SimaPro visade även att marknad 1 hade en påverkan som var ungefär 60% högre än marknad 2 med avseende på bland annat koldioxidutsläpp, vattenanvändning samt energianvändning. För att uppfylla kraven för examensarbetet tillämpades en designdel, där moduler eller komponenter med mixat material separerades och omkonstruerades, i detta fall var det armstödet samt stålhylsan i ramen som undersöktes. Då resultaten Examensarbete TRITA-ITM-EX 2019:669 Undersökning av en rullstols totala miljöpåverkan Emma Karlsson Madelen Tram iii visade att ramen hade den största påverkan och dess tillverkning var det som orsakade det mesta av denna påverkan valdes dess material- och tillverkningsfas för vidare undersökning i fas 2 där även designförslagen undersöks. Det nya material och tillverkningsprocess som undersöktes var en aluminiumkomposit samt tillverkningsprocesserna svetsning, extrudering och CNC. Undersökningen visade att byte av material skulle leda till en ökad miljöpåverkan men förlängd livslängd, vilket skulle minska miljöpåverkan per år och ett byte av tillverkningsprocessen skulle leda till det motsatta. Det vill säga en minskning i miljöpåverkan men även i livslängden vilket gör att miljöpåverkan per år skulle öka. De två framtagna designförändringarna skulle ge en minskad miljöpåverkan. För att åstadkomma en minskning av den totala miljöpåverkan rekommenderas att förlänga livslängden på rullstolens samtliga moduler. / Company X was established in the second half of the 20th century with the goal to develop high-quality medical aids such as wheelchairs. The company strives for their users to be able to sit in a way that maximises their ability to move as well as their activity rate based on their individual prerequisites. The purpose of the project was to examine the total environmental impacts of one of Company X’s wheelchairs, used during 13 years, using a lifecycle analysis as well as providing a good foundation for future sustainability work. Based on the results gained from the lifecycle analysis suggestions that could, if possible, lower the impacts of the product should be examined. The analysis was based on two different markets. In market 1 the wheelchair is disposed of after one use, in market 2 the wheelchair is reconditioned and reused at least once before disposal. The information that was collected in the beginning of the project showed that one user uses the wheelchair for 4,3 years on average. This means that one wheelchair is used by about three users during its lifetime. In market 1, therefore, three wheelchairs that are disposed of after 4,3 years are examined and in market 2 one wheelchair that is reconditioned and reused twice before being disposed of after the third user has been examined. The project is divided into two phases, phase 1 where the wheelchair is analysed using the program SimaPro and phase 2 where suggestions to lower the impact was examined using the methods 10 Golden Principles and the 5-Layer Approach. The result from phase 1 showed that the manufacturing phase and the frame stood for the largest impact and that the reason for the high values was the manufacturing process X of aluminium. The results also showed that market 1 had an impact that was about 60% higher than that of market 2 when looking at categories such as carbon footprint, water and energy usage. To fulfil the design demands of the master thesis two redesign proposals were developed on modules and components where there were mixed materials, one was the armrest, the other the frame and the casted in leg rest sleeve. Due to the fact that the results showed Master of Science Thesis TRITA-ITM-EX 2019:669 Analysis of the environmental impact of a wheelchair Emma Karlsson Madelen Tram v that the frame had the greatest impact and that the manufacturing of it was what caused the high numbers its material and manufacturing-phase was chosen for further examination during phase 2. The developed design proposals were also examined further during this phase. The new material and manufacturing processes that were proposed and analysed were an aluminium composite and the manufacturing prosses welding, extrusion and CNC. The analysis showed that exchanging the material would lead to an increased environmental impact but a longer life span. This would result in a reduced environmental impact per year whilst an exchange of the manufacturing process would result in the opposite. The environmental impact would be reduced but so would the life span which means that the environmental impact per year would be increased. Implementing the two design proposals would lead to a reduction of the environmental impact. To reduce the total environmental impact, it is recommended to lengthen the life span of all the modules that make up the wheelchair.

In an open economy economic agents distribute their spending between domestic and various import goods and they may reconsider their choice whenever relative international prices change. Armington elasticities quantify these reallocations in demand for goods produced in different countries. Recent analytical frameworks allow to further differentiate between a macro elasticity of substitution between domestic and import goods and a micro elasticity between different import sources. Despite the relevance of Armington elasticities for evaluating trade policy there has been no systematic study on whether micro and macro elasticities significantly differ for highly integrated economies within a free trade area and whether there is a common pattern. Using highly disaggregated data, this paper estimates Armington elasticities for a panel of 15 EMU Member States. Empirical results indicate a significant difference between micro and macro elasticities for up to one half of the consistent product groups considered, implying preferences across EMU countries are not perfectly aligned with non-discriminatory tariffs. I conclude that both the absolute and relative macro elasticities are informative and that heterogeneous preference patterns link to current trade imbalances. (author's abstract) / Series: Department of Economics Working Paper Series

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Submitted by Natalie Mendes (nataliermendes@gmail.com) on 2015-07-22T01:07:26Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao versao final PPGSC.pdf: 1143429 bytes, checksum: 4001d67efdeaf38f6d494a206cf29031 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-07-22T01:07:26Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao versao final PPGSC.pdf: 1143429 bytes, checksum: 4001d67efdeaf38f6d494a206cf29031 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-04-24 / Cohort study follow 672 couple of mothers and children since birth to 72 months of life. The objectives was identify economic, genetic and environment risk factors that are associated with overweight and obesity children at six years old. The research included all the children that birth in each from 10 hospitals of the city at 2004 year. The maternal hospital was visited a long period of two consecutive months, accord draw. Stander Inquiries was done after signing an informed consent. The classification to nutrition child was determinate from z-score of BMI graphics, have defined overweight/obesity that BMI ? +1 z-score. Stratified hierarchical statistical analysis, qui-quadratic test, p value, was considered significant values equivalent or minor of 5% with confidence interval (CI) of 95%. Logistic multivariate regression followed hierarchical levels. Overweight and obesity prevalence was 15,6% and 12,9% respective. The regress logistic analyses evidenced factors associated with final predictor maternal obesity for breastfeeding group. Children not breastfeeding had predictors as maternal obesity, father obesity, mother instruction level and cesarean delivery at the end of analysis. This study confirms the interaction of several factors to overweight and obesity, with genetics and environments factors. Early factors in the life were strongly with obesity than the neonatal predictors. There is important in the prevention of the obesity, modifier risk factors like breastfeeding practice and natural delivery. More research needs to investigate the association between cesarean delivery and excess BMI. / Estudo de coorte de nascidos vivos o qual pesquisou 672 duplas de m?es e filhos do nascimento aos 72 meses de vida. O objetivo ? identificar fatores socioecon?micos, gen?ticos e ambientais que est?o associados ao excesso de peso em crian?as aos seis anos de idade. Trata-se de um estudo prospectivo onde foram inclu?dos na pesquisa todas as crian?as que nasceram em cada uma das 10 maternidades do munic?pio no ano de 2004. As unidades foram visitadas por per?odo de dois meses consecutivos, conforme sorteio. Foram aplicados question?rios padronizados ap?s assinatura de Termo de Consentimento Livre e Esclarecido. Avaliado o estado nutricional da crian?a conforme o escore-z das curvas de IMC para idade, sendo considerado como sobrepeso/obesidade o IMC igual ou superior ao desvio padr?o +1. Foi realizado an?lise hierarquizada estratificada, teste do qui-quadrado (x?) com c?lculo do p valor, sendo considerados como significantes valores iguais ou menores a 5% com Intervalo de Confian?a (IC) de 95%. A regress?o log?stica multivariada seguiu o modelo conceitual te?rico em n?veis hier?rquicos. As preval?ncias de sobrepeso e obesidade foram de 15,6% e 12,9%, respectivamente. A an?lise de regress?o log?stica evidenciou como fatores associados ao desfecho a obesidade materna como preditor de risco para as crian?as amamentadas. No estrato de crian?as n?o amamentadas permaneceram no modelo as vari?veis obesidade materna, obesidade paterna, escolaridade das m?e e a via de parto ces?reo. O estudo corrobora a multifatoriedade do excesso de peso corporal com a participa??o de fatores gen?ticos e ambientais. Os fatores relativos a fases precoces da vida estiveram mais fortemente associados com a obesidade do que os preditores p?s neonatais. ? preciso valorizar, na preven??o da obesidade, os fatores de risco modific?veis como a pr?tica do aleitamento materno e a via de parto vaginal. S?o necess?rios mais estudos para elucidar a associa??o entre o parto ces?reo e obesidade.

The major purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of a science course for prospective elementary teachers on their perceptions of the learning environment, attitudes towards science, and understandings of the nature of science. The sample consisted of 525 female students enrolled in 27 classes of A Process Approach to Science (SCED 401) at a large urban university in Southern California. Also comparisons were made between SCED 401 and the students' previous laboratory course with regard to the learning environment and attitudes. Perceptions of the learning environment were measured using scales from the Science Laboratory Environment Inventory (Open-Endedness and Material Environment) and the What Is Happening In this Class? (Student Cohesiveness, Instructor Support, Cooperation, Investigation). Attitudes towards science were assessed using the Enjoyment of Science Lessons scale from the Test of Science-Related Attitudes (TOSRA). Students completed the Nature of Scientific Knowledge Survey (NSKS) based on their entire science education experience-not just the one laboratory class which they had taken previously. Comparisons were then made with their understandings after having completed SCED 401. Finally, associations between the learning environment and the student outcomes of attitudes and understandings of the nature of science were explored. This study embraced the current trend in classroom learning environments research of combining quantitative and qualitative methods. Qualitative components included items from the open-ended questionnaire, Views of Nature of Science, interviews with students, and an analysis of concept maps. The qualitative findings expanded and complemented the quantitative results and, in several cases, supported the construct validity of scales assessing the learning environment and attitudes. / Another purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of using real research data for growth rates of four species of Antarctic seabirds (i.e., implementing an 'intervention') in six classes of SCED 401. The objective of the intervention was to increase the authenticity and quality of an experimental design project. In addition, the wildlife biologist who collected the data guided the students during the project. Although the intervention did not lead to an appreciable improvement in students' perceptions of the learning environment, differences between intervention and nonintervention classes were statistically significant for Enjoyment of Science Lessons from the TOSRA and for Creative from the NSKS (effect sues were 2.64 and 2.06 standard deviations, respectively). Results of this study indicated that during a factor analysis, the large majority of learning environment items belonged to their a priori scale (43 out of 46 items had factor loadings above 0.40) A valid instrument for use with prospective elementary teachers was produced by combining relevant scales from the Science . Laboratory Environment Inventory and the What Is Happening In this Class? A weaker factor structure was found for the Nature of Scientific Knowledge Survey. However, by moving close to half of the -faulty' items from the NSKS, the internal consistency reliability of scales improved considerably. This study also found large and statistically significant differences between students' previous laboratory class and SCED 401 for all six leaning environment scales. The largest difference was found for the level of Open-Endedness (effect size was 6.74 standard deviations). / A statistically significant difference also was found for Enjoyment of Science Lessons (effect size was 2.98 standard deviations). Differences were not as dramatic with regard to understandings of the nature of science, although differences for two scales (Creative and Unified) from the NSKS were positive and statistically significant. This study replicated past research by finding statistically significant positive correlations between all six learning environment scales and Enjoyment of Science Lessons. However, by far, Instructor Support had the largest independent association with enjoyment, using both the individual and class mean as the units of analysis. A positive link between a favorable leaning environment and the student outcome of understanding nature of science also was found. This research makes a distinctive contribution to the learning environments field because it is the first study to investigate laboratory classroom environments at the university level with prospective elementary teachers. The study is also the first to build a bridge between the classroom learning environment and the student outcome of understanding the nature of science. The study has implications for undergraduate laboratory course instructors, for science teacher educators who develop and instruct in elementary teacher preparation programs, and for future elementary teachers and the science learning of their future students.

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How New Zealand’s health-sector labour markets interact with District Health Board (DHB) Provider Arms is my thesis’ focus. Using health-service delivery data, workforce data, and DHB monthly financial information, I estimate the DHB Provider Arm economic production process and the interaction between DHBs and the health-sector labour and capital input markets. Production and input market interactions are modelled through simultaneously estimating a DHB production function together with the first order conditions for cost-minimisation in an econometric system-of-equations. Estimating a system-of-equations allows labour and capital market prices to interact with DHB marginal input productivities according to the first order conditions of cost-minimisation. Nationally-determined MECA labour prices influence health service output through their equality to DHB production-based input marginal productivities. Medical and nursing labour appears to have inelastic labour demand, providing scope for unions in those sectors to exploit market power. DHBs are employing fewer workers than they would and paying more for each worker than they should if the labour market was more competitive. New Zealanders are receiving less health care then they might, and experiencing more morbidity then they need bear, from the workforce restrictions generated in the health sector's labour market. The passed-through inflated labour costs are borne by taxpayers, who lack options for alternative provider care. The non-competitive labour market induce secondary labour market effects. Overseas-trained medical labour, attracted into New Zealand by above-competition wages, are denied employment within medical-skill-hungry DHBs. Graduate nurses over-supply a quantity-constrained labour market, generated entrenched unemployment. DHBs are induced to be allocative and technically inefficient through price distortions, creating higher output costs and an inefficient production input mix.

This research explores the link between a gravity model and welfare frameworks and then applies the quantitative model system to analyze how trade and welfare is affected by the Minimum Required Performance Limits (MRPL) in the shrimp importing market of European Union. The quantitative model system consists of two parts: first, this study uses the “phi-ness” gravity model to investigate the trade effects of MRPL on EU shrimp market. The “phi-ness” gravity model partitions the standard variables to avoid biased estimation caused by the correlation between time and country fixed effects and policy variables. The Poisson Pseudo Maximum Likelihood (PPML) method is incorporated into the estimation in order to control for the zero valued observations. Second, based on the theoretic foundation of the gravity model, this research sets up the specific nested Constant Elasticity of Substitution (CES) model of consumers’ utility and further explores the linkage between these two models. The nested CES model incorporates the effects of MRPL on consumers’ confidence in domestic food as well as foreign food imported from developed and developing countries. The empirical results confirm a consistent fact with previous empirical studies: stricter MRPL has significant and negative effects on trade integration between EU and trading partners with lower level of food safety standards. The welfare analysis shows that the zero tolerance policy of MRPL standard would dramatically enhance consumers’ demand for domestic shrimps and foreign shrimps imported from developed countries but reduce the quantity of shrimp supplied from developing countries. It is also indicated that the increased level of MRPL lead to an increase in welfare of domestic consumers, suppliers in developing countries, and in total international trade, as well as a decrease in the welfare of domestic suppliers and foreign suppliers from developed countries. The empirical results also indicate that the combination of GM and Welfare Approach can also be applied to research on other standards or other industries.