Transplante de medula óssea (TMO) é um procedimento terapêutico que tem como o objetivo a substituição da medula óssea doente por outra saudável. É utilizado em pacientes oncológicos e pode representar a cura da malignidade hematológica ou o resgate da medula óssea para a continuidade do tratamento antineoplásico. No TMO são empregadas drogas com alta toxicidade que agem ao nível sistêmico e que podem causar severos danos ao organismo. Esses danos resultam em complicações diversas que irão influenciar o prognóstico e sobrevida do paciente. As complicações pulmonares são associadas a altas taxas de mortalidade, sobretudo quando a ventilação mecânica (VM) é necessária. Ainda não há consenso na literatura quanto às causas, os fatores de risco e o tratamento adequado. Este estudo teve como objetivo identificar os fatores preditivos para insuficiência respiratória (IRP) em paciente oncológicos após o TMO autólogo e investigar o impacto da ventilação não-invasiva (VNI) na evolução clínica destes pacientes. Foi realizado o levantamento retrospectivo de 161 pacientes submetidos ao TMO autólogo no Hospital A.C. Camargo entre 1995 e 2005. Houve forte associação de IRP e óbito (p< 0,001) e também observamos associação com mucosite (p=0,016) e etilismo (p=0,036), essa associação permaneceu significante na análise multivariada [mucosite (p=0,004) e etilismo (p=0,02)]. De acordo com a análise de sobrevida encontramos associação com o maior número de regimes de quimioterapia no passado (p= 0.005), mucosite (p= 0.029), etilismo (p= 0.044) e redução da capacidade de difusão de monóxido de carbono (p=0.048). Em nosso estudo a taxa de mortalidade permanece alta para aqueles pacientes que desenvolvem IRP e necessitam de VM. A VNI não demonstrou efeito protetor na sobrevida dos pacientes que evoluíram com IRP. A mucosite mostrou-se um fator de piora no prognóstico destes pacientes devendo ser agressivamente evitada e tratada. O impacto do etilismo na incidência de insuficiência respiratória (IRP) e mortalidade destes pacientes merece destaque especial com necessidade de mais pesquisas. O stress oxidativo parece ter um importante efeito causal para as complicações pulmonares após o TMO podendo ser potencializado pelo etilismo. O maior número de esquemas de quimioterapia no passado aumentou a mortalidade, isso poderia representar pacientes com neoplasias mais resistentes ao tratamento ou pacientes que foram expostos ao efeito cumulativo das drogas. A capacidade de difusão de monóxido de carbono é um teste bastante útil para prever risco de óbito / Bone marrow transplantation (BMT) is a therapeutic procedure to replace unable marrow for another healthy one. Its used in cancer patients to cure or refresh marrow to keep the cancer treatment. Respiratory failure (RF) after BMT is associated with high mortality specially when mechanical ventilation (MV) is needed, it may be due to treatment-related toxicity, infection, or immunologic insufficiency. Many studies have trying to identify causes, predicting factors and response for the usual treatment, but until now there is no agreement in literature. The aim of this study is to identify which factors evaluated in routine anamnesis and exams pretransplant can affect the prognosis of those patients. We retrospectively collected variables in 161 consecutive cancer patients who had undergone autologous BMT. The variables obtained from the in-hospital period were submitted to univariated and multivariated stepwise logistic regression analyses. Survival analysis also was computed in 100 days follow up. There were highest association for respiratory failure (RF) with death (p<0.001) and we also found a significant association with alcohol abuse (p =0.036) and mucositis (p=0.016), and those variables remained statically significant in multivariated analysis [mucositis (p=0.004) and alcohol abuse (p=0.02)]. According to survival analysis we found significance for the major number of chemotherapy regimens received in the past (p= 0.005), mucositis (p= 0.029), alcohol abuse (p= 0.044) and decreased monoxide carbon diffusion (p=0.048). In our study the mortality rate remains high for those patients who develop RF and need MV. It seems not to have impact what kind of ventilatory support is used (invasive or non-invasive ventilation). Mucositis needs special attention because treating it we can be preventing RF and decrease mortality rates. The effect of alcohol abuse in mortality rate and RF deserve a special attention because its socially accepted and his deleterious action its not explained. The oxidative stress seems to have an important main effect over post-transplant complications and it can be increased by alcohol abuse history. The major number of chemotherapy regimens received in the past increase mortality, it could represent patients who had baseline disease more difficult to treat, more resistant, or patients who were exposed to a cumulative side effect of drugs. Monoxide carbon diffusion is a useful test to identify the risk for death

Introdução: A acromegalia é uma doença crônica geralmente causada por adenoma hipofisário produtor de hormônio do crescimento (GH). Os pacientes com acromegalia são expostos a altos níveis de GH e do fator de crescimento semelhante à insulina 1 (IGF-1) e têm risco aumentado de doenças cardiovasculares. Os distúrbios respiratórios do sono, caracterizados por apneia obstrutiva do sono (AOS) e apneia central (AC), são comuns nos pacientes com acromegalia. Os distúrbios respiratórios do sono causam hipóxia intermitente e sono fragmentado e são fatores de risco para pior prognóstico cardiovascular. No entanto, não está claro se os distúrbios respiratórios do sono contribuem para pior desfecho cardiovascular entre pacientes com acromegalia. Objetivo: Elucidar a contribuição dos distúrbios respiratórios do sono na gênese de doenças cardiovasculares em pacientes com acromegalia. Neste contexto foram realizados dois estudos, um estudo transversal (Estudo I) e um estudo de intervenção (Estudo II) que serão descritos a seguir. Método: Estudo I: Foram avaliados pacientes consecutivos com diagnóstico confirmado de acromegalia e acompanhados no ambulatório da Disciplina de Endocrinologia e Metabologia do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo. Os pacientes foram submetidos à avaliação clínica, questionário de sonolência de Epworth (ESE, escore variando entre 0 - 24), índice de qualidade de sono de Pittsburgh (PSQI, escore variando entre 0 - 21), questionário de qualidade de vida SF-36 (escore variando entre 0 - 100), polissonografia (PSG), monitorização ambulatorial da pressão arterial (MAPA), velocidade de onda de pulso (VOP), e ecocardiograma. Estudo II: Pacientes com acromegalia e AOS moderada a grave (índice de apneias hipopneias (IAH) 15 eventos/h) foram tratados por 3 meses em sequência aleatória com CPAP ou adesivo nasal. Os pacientes foram submetidos à avaliação clínica, questionários de ESE, PSQI, SF-36, questionário de satisfação do tratamento (0 - 10), MAPA, VOP, diâmetro e distensibilidade de carótida e PSG ao entrar no estudo, 3 meses e 6 meses. Resultados: Estudo I: Foram avaliados 48 pacientes (sexo masculino = 31%; idade = 52 ± 11 anos; índice de massa corpórea = 32,0 ± 5,5 Kg/m2). Vinte e nove pacientes (60,4%) apresentaram distúrbios respiratórios do sono moderado a grave (IAH 15 eventos/h) distribuídos em 23 (88%) com AOS e 6 (12%) com AC. Os pacientes com distúrbios respiratórios do sono eram mais velhos (56 ± 9 vs. 48 ± 12 anos, p= 0,018), mais obesos (33,3 ± 5,9 vs. 29,4 ± 4,0 Kg/m2, p = 0,014), apresentaram maior pressão arterial sistólica (131 ± 17 vs. 122 ± 11 mm Hg; p = 0,02) e diastólica (88 ± 14 vs. 81 ± 6 mm Hg, p = 0,02), maior diâmetro da carótida (7244 (6646 - 7685) vs. 6795 (6072 - 7341) m, p = 0,03), menor distensibilidade carotídea (5,01 ± 1,80 vs. 6,32 ± 2,16 m, p = 0,04) e pior qualidade de sono (9 (6 - 14) vs. 6 (5 - 8), p = 0,005) do que pacientes sem distúrbios respiratórios do sono. A presença de distúrbios respiratórios do sono se associou de forma independente com maior idade (p = 0,01), maior pressão arterial diastólica (p = 0,04) e menor distensibilidade carotídea (p = 0,04). Estudo II: Dezessete pacientes com acromegalia e AOS moderada a grave (masculino/feminino = 9/8, idade = 54 ± 10 anos, índice de massa corpórea = 34,0 ± 5,7 Kg/m2, IAH = 49,8 ± 23,7 eventos/h, ESE = 12 ± 6, PSQI = 12 (7- 14) completaram o estudo. A média da pressão do CPAP foi de 11 ± 2 cm H2O. O CPAP foi usado em média 6 ± 2 h/noite. O uso do adesivo nasal foi utilizado em 80% das noites. O IAH diminuiu significativamente com CPAP, mas não mudou com dilatador nasal (8,1 ± 5,2 vs. 47,4 ± 25,4 eventos/h, respectivamente, p = 0,0001). Todos os sintomas subjetivos melhoraram com ambos os tratamentos, no entanto significativamente mais com CPAP do que com dilatador nasal (ESE = 5 ± 4 vs. 9 ± 7, p = 0,002; PSQI = 3 (1- 5) vs. 5 (4-10), p <0,0001; satisfação do tratamento = 9 ± 1 vs. 6 ± 3, p = 0,001, respectivamente). O tratamento da AOS com CPAP comparado com adesivo nasal não resultou em melhora significativa nos níveis de pressão arterial no período da vigília (pressão arterial sistólica = 127 ±11 vs. 129 ± 10, p = 0,23; pressão arterial diastólica = 79 ± 11 vs. 80 ± 10, p = 0,46, respectivamente) e no período do sono (pressão arterial sistólica = 120 ± 14 vs. 124 ± 15, p = 0,66; pressão arterial diastólica = 71 (66 - 82) vs. 54 (52 - 63), p = 0,54, respectivamente) avaliado pela MAPA e rigidez da arterial (VOP = 9,0 ± 1,2 vs. 9,6 ± 1,5 m/s, p = 0,69 respectivamente). Conclusão: Os distúrbios respiratórios do sono são comuns entre os pacientes com acromegalia e estão associados de forma independente com maior pressão arterial diastólica, menor distensibilidade da carótida e pior qualidade do sono. O tratamento da AOS com CPAP em pacientes com acromegalia melhora a qualidade do sono. No entanto, não existe evidência até o momento de melhora em parâmetros cardiovasculares / Introduction: Acromegaly is a chronic disease usually caused by pituitary adenoma producing growth hormone (GH). Patients with acromegaly are exposed to high levels of GH and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and have increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Sleep-disordered breathing, characterized by obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) and central sleep apnea (AC), are common in patients with acromegaly. Sleep-disordered breathing cause intermittent hypoxia and fragmented sleep and are risk factors for poor cardiovascular outcome among patients with acromegaly. However, it is unclear whether sleep-disordered breathing are simply a result of acromegaly contribute to worse cardiovascular outcomes in patients with acromegaly. Objective: To elucidate the contribution of sleep-disordered breathing in the genesis of cardiovascular disease in patients with acromegaly. Two studies were conducted a cross sectional study (Study I) and a interventional study (Study II). Method: Study I: We evaluated consecutive patients with a confirmed diagnosis of acromegaly of a dedicated outpatient clinic of tertiary University Hospital (Hospital das Clinicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo). Patients underwent clinical assessment questionnaire for evaluation of daytime somnolence (Epworth sleepiness - ESS score, ranging from 0 - 24), index of Pittsburgh sleep quality (PSQI score, ranging from 0 - 21), quality of life questionnaire SF-36 (score ranging from 0 - 100), polysomnography (PSG), ambulatory blood pressure (ABMP), pulse wave velocity (PWV), diameter and distensibility carotid and echocardiography. Study II: Patients with acromegaly and moderate to severe OSA (apnea index - hypopnea index (AHI) 15 events / h) were treated for 3 months in random sequence with nasal CPAP or nasal dilator strips. The patients underwent clinical evaluation, questionnaires ESS, PSQI, SF-36, treatment satisfaction questionnaire (0-10), ABMP and PWV, diameter and distensibility carotid and PSG at study entry, 3 months and 6 months. Results: Study I: We evaluated 48 patients (male = 31%, age = 52 ± 11 years, body mass index = 32.0 ± 5.5 kg/m2). Twenty-nine patients (60.4%) had moderate to severe sleep-disordered breathing (AHI 15 events / h) distributed n = 23 (88%) OSA and n = 6 (12%) CA. Patients with sleep-disordered breathing were older (56 ± 9 vs. 48 ± 12 years, p = 0.018), more obese (33.3 ± 5.9 vs. 29.4 ± 4.0 kg/m2, p = 0.014), had higher systolic blood pressure (131 ± 17 vs. 122 ± 11 mm Hg, p = 0.02) and diastolic (88 ± 14 vs. 81 ± 6 mm Hg, p = 0.02), larger Carotid diameter (7244 (6646 - 7685) vs. 6795 (6072 - 7341) m, p = 0.03), lower carotid distensibility (5.01 ± 1.80 vs. 6.32 ± 2.16 mm, p = 0.04) and worse sleep quality (9 (6 -14) vs. 6 (5 - 8) score, p = 0.005) than patients without sleep-disordered breathing. The presence of sleep-disordered breathing was independently associated with older age (p = 0.01), higher diastolic blood pressure (p = 0.04) and lower carotid distensibility (p = 0.04). Study II: Seventeen patients with acromegaly and moderate to severe OSA (male / female = 9/8, age = 54 ± 10 years, body mass index = 34.0 ± 5.7 kg/m2, AHI = 49.8 ± 23.7 events / h, SE = 12 ± 6 score, PSQI = 12 (7 - 14) score) completed the study. The average CPAP pressure was 11 ± 2 cm H2O. CPAP was used on average 6 ± 2 h / night. The use of the nasal dilator strips was used in 80% of nights. The AHI decreased significantly with CPAP, but did not change with nasal dilator (8.1 ± 5.2 vs. 47.4 ± 25.4 events / h, respectively, p = 0.0001). All subjective symptoms improved with both treatments, but significantly more than with CPAP than nasal dilator strips (ESE = 5 ± 4 vs. 9 ± 7, p = 0.002; PSQI = 3 (1 - 5) vs. 5 (4 - 10), p <0.0001; treatment satisfaction = 9 ± 1 vs. 6 ± 3, p = 0.001, respectively). Treatment of OSA with CPAP compared with nasal dilator strips did result in significant improvements in ABMP during wakefulness (systolic blood pressure = 127 ± 11 vs. 129 ± 10, p = 0.23, diastolic blood pressure = 79 ± 11 vs. 80 ± 10, p = 0.46, respectively) and during sleep (systolic blood pressure = 120 ± 14 vs. 124 ± 15, p = 0.66; diastolic blood pressure = 71 (66 - 82) vs. 54 (52 - 63), p = 0.54, respectively) measured by ABMP and arterial stiffness (PWV = 9.0 ± 1.2 vs. 9.6 ± 1.5 m / s, p = 0,69 respectively). Conclusion: Sleep-disordered breathing is independently associated with higher diastolic blood pressure and lower carotid distensibility. However, there is no evidence that treatment of OSA with CPAP in patients with acromegaly results in significant improvement in blood pressure and carotid artery distensibility.

A pressão positiva contínua nas vias aéreas (CPAP) é o tratamento de escolha para pacientes com Apnéia Obstrutiva do Sono, mas muitos sintomas nasais conseqüentes da terapia são relatados. Vazamentos aéreos pela boca e alterações do epitélio respiratório são importantes no desenvolvimento de sintomas nasais e a umidificação aquecida é utilizada no alívio destes sintomas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi o de investigar os efeito agudos do nCPAP e o impacto da umidificação aquecida e vazamento aéreo no transporte mucociliar e inflamação nasal de indivíduos sadios. Para este fim avaliamos o transporte mucociliar nasal in vivo (através do Teste da Sacarina), a transportabilidade in vitro do muco nasal (através do Método Palato de Rã), lavado nasal e sintomas respiratórios (através de uma Escala Visual Analógica) de dezesseis indivíduos sadios antes e após aplicação aguda do CPAP sobre diferentes condições: CPAP com e sem umidificação aquecida e CPAP com e sem vazamento aéreo. O transporte mucociiar nasal in vivo aumentou significativamente após todas as intervenções com CPAP. Não houve diferença significativa da transportabilidade do muco, contagem total e diferencial de células inflamatórias provenientes do lavado nasal após nenhuma das intervenções com o CPAP. Houve um aumento significante da percepção subjetiva dos sintomas respiratórios estudados após o uso do CPAP sem umidificação e com vazamento aéreo. Concluimos que o uso agudo do CPAP independente da umidificação ou vazamento aéreo, aumenta significativamente o transporte mucociliar nasal in vivo, não altera significativamente a transportabilidade do muco nasal nem a composição celular de amostras de lavado nasal. Já o uso do CPAP sem umidificação e com vazamento aéreo causa aumento significativo dos sintomas de ressecamento nasal e de garganta, coriza e obstrução nasal. / Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) is the treatment of choice for patients with Obstructive Sleep Apnea but yet nasal symptoms are often reported. Air leaks and changes of the respiratory epithelium are important in the development of nasal symptoms and heated humidification is used to alleviate these symptoms. The aim of this study was to investigate the acute effects of CPAP and the impact of heated humidification and air leak on the nasal mucociliary clearance and nasal inflammation of healthy volunteers. To this end we evaluated nasal mucociliary clearance in vivo (through the Saccharin Test), in vitro nasal mucus transportability (through the Frog Palate Model), nasal lavage and respiratory symptoms (through a Visual Analogue Scale) of sixteen healthy volunteers before and after acute CPAP application under different conditions: CPAP with and without heated humidification and with and without air leak. In vivo nasal mucociliary clearance increased significantly after all CPAP interventions. There was no significant difference in mucus transportability, total or differential inflammatory cell count from the nasal lavage after any CPAP intervention. There was a significant increase in the subjective perception of the respiratory symptoms studied after the use of CPAP without humidification and with air leak. We conclude that the acute use of CPAP independently of humidification or air leak significantly increases in vivo nasal mucociliary clearance, doesn\'t change mucus transportability and total or differential cell count. However, the use o CPAP without humidification and with air leak significantly increased nasal and throat dryness, coryza and nasal obstruction subjective perception.

Le traitement de première ligne de l’apnée obstructive du sommeil est l’appareil à pression positive, soit le CPAP, qui est le plus souvent utilisé avec un masque nasal. Certains patients, incapables de tolérer le masque nasal, doivent se tourner vers le masque facial, qui peut parfois requérir une pression supérieure à celle utilisée avec le masque nasal pour éliminer tous les événements respiratoires. Nous supposons que l’ajustement serré du masque facial, dans le but de réduire les fuites, entraîne une pression de recul sur la mandibule; ceci diminuerait le calibre des voies aériennes supérieures, nécessitant donc une pression effective thérapeutique supérieure pour rétablir un passage de l’air. Nos objectifs étaient : 1) de démontrer s’il y avait une différence de pression effective entre le masque nasal et le masque facial, 2) de quantifier la fuite entre les deux masques, 3) d’évaluer l’effet d’une orthèse de rétention mandibulaire neutre (OMN), qui empêche le recul mandibulaire, sur la pression effective des deux masques et 4) d’évaluer s’il existait un lien entre la céphalométrie et les réponses variables des individus. Méthodologie : Lors de cette étude expérimentale croisée, huit sujets (2 femmes, 6 hommes) avec une moyenne d’âge de 56,3ans [33ans-65ans] ont reçu un examen orthodontique complet incluant une radiographie céphalométrique latérale. Ils ont ensuite passé deux nuits de polysomnographie au laboratoire du sommeil en protocole « split-night » où les deux masques ont été portés, seuls, la première nuit, et avec l’OMN, la deuxième nuit. Résultats : Nous avons trouvé que la pression effective thérapeutique était supérieure avec le masque facial comparativement au masque nasal de manière statistiquement significative. Nous avons observé une fuite supérieure avec le masque nasal, ce qui permet de dire que la fuite n’explique probablement pas cette différence de pression entre les deux masques. L’OMN n’a pas donné d’effet statistiquement significatif lorsque combinée au masque nasal, mais il aurait probablement été possible de trouver un effet positif avec le masque facial si le Bi-PAP avait été inclus dans le protocole de recherche. Conclusion : Nos résultats ne permettent pas de confirmer le rôle du recul mandibulaire, causé par la force exercée avec le masque facial, dans l’obtention de pressions supérieures avec ce masque, mais nous ne pouvons toutefois pas éliminer l’hypothèse. Les résultats suggèrent également que ce phénomène est peut-être plus fréquent qu’on ne le croit et qu’il pourrait y avoir un lien avec certains facteurs anatomiques individuels. / The first line of treatment for obstructive sleep apnea is continuous positive airway pressure or CPAP used via a nasal mask. Some patients, unable to tolerate the nasal mask, have to turn to the facial mask, which sometimes requires a superior level of pressure to eliminate all the respiratory events. We believe that the force applied on the chin from a tight adjustment of the facial mask may retrude the mandible and diminish the upper airway caliber. Our objectives for this study were to: 1) demonstrate that a difference of effective therapeutic pressure between the nasal and facial masks does exist, 2) quantify the leaks associated with each mask, 3) evaluate the effect of a neutral mandibular appliance (NMA), that prevents the retrusion of the mandible, on the effective pressure of both masks and 4) evaluate if a link between the cephalometric values and varied individual responses to both masks exists. Methods: Eight subjects (2 females, 6 males) mean age 56.3 years (33-65y) participated in the cross-over design pilot study. All subjects underwent a complete orthodontic examination including lateral cephalometric radiograph before spending two nights in a sleep laboratory for a polysomnography in split-night protocol, where both mask were worn alone on the first night and with the NMA on the second night. Results: We found that the therapeutic effective pressure was higher with the facial mask compared to the nasal mask, and this difference was statistically significant. The leak was more elevated with the nasal mask, thus eliminating this factor as a probable cause of the higher pressure with the facial mask. The NMA did not have any statistically significant effect on both masks; however a possible positive effect might be seen if the Bi-level PAP was included in the protocol. Conclusion: Our results cannot confirm the role of the retrusion of the mandible, caused by the force applied by the facial mask, in the necessity of a superior level of pressure with that mask, but we cannot eliminate that possibility either. Our results suggest that this phenomenon is more frequent that we may think and that a link with some anatomical factors may exist.

Thesis (MMed) -- Stellenbosch University, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Introduction: Limited facilities exist at rural hospitals for the management of newborn infants with respiratory distress syndrome (RDS). Furthermore, the secondary and tertiary hospitals are under severe strain to accept all the referrals from rural hospitals. Many of these infants require intubation and ventilation with a resuscitation bag which must be sustained for hours until the transport team arrives. Not only is lung damage inflicted by the prolonged ventilation, but transferring the infant by helicopter and ambulance is expensive. CPAP (continuous positive airway pressure), a non-invasive form of ventilatory support, has been used successfully at regional (Level 2) and tertiary (Level 3) neonatal units, to manage infants with RDS. It is cost-effective for infants with mild to moderate grades of RDS to be managed at the rural hospital instead of being transferred to the regional secondary or tertiary hospital. CPAP was introduced to Ceres Hospital, a rural Level 1 hospital, in February 2008 for the management of infants with RDS. Aim: To determine the impact of CPAP on the management of infants with RDS in a rural level 1 hospital and whether it can reduce the number of referrals to regional hospitals. Study setting: Nursery at Ceres District Hospital, Cape Winelands District, Western Cape. Study design: Prospective cohort analytical study with an historic control group (HCG). Patients and Methods: The study group (SG) comprised all neonates with respiratory distress born between 27/02/2008 and 26/02/2010. The infants were initially resuscitated with a Neopuff® machine in labour-ward and CPAP was commenced for those with RDS. The survival and referral rates of the SG were compared to an historic control group (HCG) of infants born between 1/2/2006 to 31/01/2008 at Ceres Hospital. Results: During the 2 years of the study, 51 neonates received CPAP (34 <1800g, 17>1800g). Twenty (83%) of the SG infants between 1000g and 1800g and 23 (68%) of the infants between 500g and 1800g survived. Those <1800g that failed CPAP, had either a severe grade of RDS which required intubation and ventilation or were <1000g. Seventeen (33%) of the infants that received CPAP, were in the >1800g group. Thirteen (76%) of these infants were successfully treated with CPAP only. The four infants that failed CPAP suffered from congenital abnormalities and would not have benefited from CPAP. There was no statistically significant difference in the survival between the SG and HCG (80%) (p=0.5490) but the number of referrals decreased significantly from 21% in the HCG to 7% in the SG (p=0.0003). No complications related to CPAP treatment, such as pneumothorax, were noted. The nursing and medical staff quickly became proficient and confident in applying CPAP and were committed to the project. Conclusion: CPAP can be safely and successfully practised in infants with mild to moderate RDS in a rural Level 1 hospital. The survival rate stayed the same as the HCG, even though a higher risk infants were treated in the SG. The transfers were significantly reduced from 21% to 7%. This resulted in significant cost savings for the hospital. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: geen opsomming

Le syndrome d’apnées obstructives du sommeil (SAOS) est associé à de nombreuses co-morbidités métaboliques et cardiovasculaires. L’hypoxie intermittente chronique, une des composantes du SAOS, induit des mécanismes intermédiaires délétères tels que stress oxydatif, inflammation, insulino-résistance ou encore dyslipidémie, à l’origine de ces comorbidités. Ces mécanismes intermédiaires sont également communs à d’autres pathologies respiratoires chroniques telles que la bronchopneumopathie chronique obstructive (BPCO) et le syndrome d’obésité hypoventilation (SOH).L’hypoxie intermittente et les mécanismes intermédiaires associés sont aussi à l’origine de l’existence et de la progression de la stéatopathie métabolique (« non alcoholic fatty liver disease »). Ce lien entre pathologies respiratoires chroniques et atteinte hépatique est un mécanisme essentiel mais plus récemment étudié des co-morbidités dans le SAOS et la BPCO. Différents biomarqueurs cardiométaboliques ont donc été étudiés dans ces pathologies respiratoires chroniques à la fois pour caractériser les co-morbidités et l’atteinte systémique et pour apprécier l’impact de différentes thérapeutiques. La première partie de cette thèse sera consacrée à une revue systématique des différents biomarqueurs cardio-métaboliques liés à chacune de ces 3 pathologies respiratoires chroniques : SAOS, BPCO et SOH.Le traitement du SAOS par pression positive continue (PPC) a un effet bénéfique sur les symptômes fonctionnels liés à cette pathologie. Cependant, l’impact de la PPC sur d’autres conséquences cardio-métaboliques délétères du SAOS reste encore à démontrer par des essais randomisés contrôlés, notamment sur l’atteinte hépatique.Dans la seconde partie de cette thèse, nous détaillerons l’impact de la PPC sur les différents marqueurs cardiométaboliques du SAOS à l’aide d’une revue systématique puis d’une étude randomisée contrôlée sur l’impact de la PPC sur les marqueurs d’atteinte hépatique.Par ailleurs, les patients atteints de SAOS, BPCO ou SOH reçoivent du fait de leur polypathologie (multimorbidité) des traitements médicamenteux multiples qui visent à contrôler au mieux les co-morbidités. Il est donc primordial de considérer la prise en charge globale de ces patients du point de vue de leurs traitements instrumentaux (PPC et ventilation non invasive) mais aussi en considérant l’impact des traitements médicamenteux associés. En effet, les traitements médicamenteux peuvent interférer avec la sévérité de la pathologie elle-même et impacter les biomarqueurs liés aux comorbidités associées. La troisième partie de cette thèse sera consacrée à l’étude d’un antihypertenseur chez le patient SAOS et envisagera l’influence des médicaments sur la pertinence de l’usage des bicarbonates comme marqueurs diagnostiques du SOH.En conclusion, nous insisterons sur la nécessité d’une prise en charge intégrée multi systémique et d’une prise en charge personnalisée de ces patients. / Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is associated with related metabolic and cardiovascular comorbidities. Chronic intermittent hypoxia the hallmark of OSA induces deleterious intermediary mechanisms such as oxidative stress, systemic inflammation, insulin resistance and dyslipidemia. Cardiovascular and metabolic comorbidities are also key features of other chronic respiratory diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and obesity hypoventilation syndrome (OHS). Chronic hypoxia and deleterious intermediary mechanisms also trigger occurrence and progression of non alcoholic fatty liver disease. This link between chronic respiratory diseases and liver injury is observed through modifications of specific liver biomarkers in OSA and COPD. A variety of cardiometabolic biomarkers have been studied for stratification of cardio-metabolic risk and assessing treatment impact in chronic respiratory diseases. The first part of this PhD thesis is a systematic review of cardio-metabolic biomarkers in 3 respiratory diseases: OSA, COPD and OHS.Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) the first line therapy for OSA improves symptoms and quality of life. However, CPAP effects on cardio-metabolic consequences remains still debated. In the second part of the PhD thesis, we will address CPAP impact on different cardiometabolic biomarkers and more specifically in markers of liver injury by reporting original results of a randomized controlled trial (RCT).Polypharmacy is usual in patients with OSA, COPD or OHS. Beyond CPAP or non invasive ventilation treatment, it is essential address the contribution of associated medications. Indeed, pharmacological treatments can interfere with the severity of the disease and control of associated comorbidities. The third part of the thesis will present a RCT evaluating Bosentan in hypertensive OSA patients and will present how medications for comorbidities decrease bicarbonate diagnosis value for OHS.We will conclude by underlining the crucial importance of personalized medicine and integrated care in chronic respiratory diseases.

A necessidade de intubação e uso de ventilação mecânica (VM) na prematuridade está relacionada à chamada lesão pulmonar induzida pela ventilação (VILI) e consequente displasia broncopulmonar (DBP). Estudos com animais e também em humanos mostraram que breves períodos de VM são suficientes para a liberação de interleucinas pró-inflamatórias. Outras formas de VM que regulam o volume-corrente evitando o volutrauma e as ventilações não invasivas como a pressão positiva contínua em via aérea por pronga nasal (CPAPn) parecem medidas protetoras ou menos lesivas para VILI. Esses efeitos protetores do CPAPn não foram ainda estudados em humanos. Objetivo: avaliar os níveis plasmáticos da interleucina (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10 e fator de necrose tumoral (TNF)-α em recém-nascidos tão logo instituído CPAPn e duas horas após. Secundariamente, avaliação dessa resposta inflamatória em pacientes que necessitaram de VM. Metodologia: estudo de coorte prospectivo, incluindo recém-nascidos admitidos com idade gestacional (IG) de 28-35 semanas e necessidade de assistência ventilatória, excluindo malformações, infecção congênita, sepse, surfactante profilático e suporte ventilatório em sala de parto. Amostras de sangue coletadas nesses dois momentos. Realizada descrição das variáveis em medianas e interquartis (p25-p75), empregado Teste de Wilcoxon. Resultados: 43 recém-nascidos, médias de peso 1883,5±580g e IG 32±2,4semanas, 23 (53%) receberam CPAPn como primeira modalidade ventilatória. Pré-termos após duas horas de VM apresentaram níveis significativamente maiores de IL-6, TNF-α e IL-8. Já os níveis de IL-6 reduziram significativamente após duas horas de CPAPn. Em 15 dos 22 (68%) neonatos cujas mães receberam corticoide pré-natal, as medianas das citocinas foram menores no início do uso do CPAPn, mas esse efeito não se sustentou duas horas após. O uso de surfactante pelos prematuros em VM não alterou a resposta inflamatória em comparação aos que não necessitaram do fármaco. Conclusão: demonstramos que os RN em CPAPn apresentaram mínima liberação de citocinas pro-inflamatórias e essa modalidade pode ter um papel protetor - nesse estudo potencializado pelo uso de corticoide ante natal. Por outro lado, VM promove significativa resposta inflamatória, estimulando-se CPAPn como estratégia ventilatória inicial protetora ao prematuro maior de 28 semanas de IG com desconforto respiratório moderado. Ainda assim, serão necessários mais estudos para determinar o papel de outras formas de ventilação não invasiva e outras formas de VM consideradas protetoras na prevenção da VILI. Essa nova compreensão dos mecanismos de lesão envolvendo resposta inflamatória mediada pelas citocinas possibilitará o desenvolvimento de novas estratégias no cuidado dos recém-nascidos prematuros. / The need for intubation and mechanical ventilation (MV) in preterm infants is related to ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI) and subsequent bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD). Studies in animals and in humans have shown that short periods of MV are enough for the release of pro-inflammatory interleukins. Other forms of MV that regulate tidal volume avoiding volutrauma and non- invasive ventilation such as continuous positive airway pressure by nasal prongs (nCPAP) seem protective measures against VILI. These protective effects of nCPAP have not been studied in humans. Objective: To evaluate the plasma levels of interleukin (IL) - 1β , IL - 6 , IL - 8 , IL - 10 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) - α in preterm infants as soon as established nCPAP and two hours after. Secondarily, to evaluate this inflammatory response in patients who required MV. Methods: Prospective cohort including newborns admitted with gestational age (GA) of 28-35 weeks and requiring ventilation support, excluding malformations, congenital infections, sepsis, previous surfactant use and ventilatory support need in the delivery room. Blood samples were collected at those two moments. Cytokines were described as medians and interquartile ranges (p25 - p75), and Wilcoxon test was performed. Results: 43 newborns, medium weight 1883.5 ± 580g and gestational age of 32 ± 2.4 weeks, 23 (53 %) received nCPAP as the first ventilatory mode. Preterm two hours after MV had significantly higher levels of IL - 6, TNF - α and IL - 8. The levels of IL - 6 decreased significantly two hours after nCPAP. In 15 of 22 (68 %) neonates whose mothers received antenatal corticosteroids, the median of cytokines were lower at the onset of the nCPAP, but this effect was not sustained after two hours. The use of surfactant in preterm infants in MV did not alter the inflammatory response compared to those who did not need the drug. Conclusion: we demonstrated that nCPAP presents minimal release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and may have a protective role - in this study enhanced by the use of antenatal corticosteroids. Still, MV promotes significant inflammatory response, thus stimulating nCPAP as initial less harmful ventilatory strategy to preterm greater than 28 weeks of GA with moderate respiratory discomfort. Therefore, further studies are needed to determine the role of other forms of non-invasive ventilation and other forms of MV considered protective in preventing VILI. This new understanding of injury mechanisms involving inflammatory response mediated by cytokines allows the development of new strategies in the care of premature infants.

A pressão positiva contínua nas vias aéreas (CPAP) é o tratamento de escolha para pacientes com Apnéia Obstrutiva do Sono, mas muitos sintomas nasais conseqüentes da terapia são relatados. Vazamentos aéreos pela boca e alterações do epitélio respiratório são importantes no desenvolvimento de sintomas nasais e a umidificação aquecida é utilizada no alívio destes sintomas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi o de investigar os efeito agudos do nCPAP e o impacto da umidificação aquecida e vazamento aéreo no transporte mucociliar e inflamação nasal de indivíduos sadios. Para este fim avaliamos o transporte mucociliar nasal in vivo (através do Teste da Sacarina), a transportabilidade in vitro do muco nasal (através do Método Palato de Rã), lavado nasal e sintomas respiratórios (através de uma Escala Visual Analógica) de dezesseis indivíduos sadios antes e após aplicação aguda do CPAP sobre diferentes condições: CPAP com e sem umidificação aquecida e CPAP com e sem vazamento aéreo. O transporte mucociiar nasal in vivo aumentou significativamente após todas as intervenções com CPAP. Não houve diferença significativa da transportabilidade do muco, contagem total e diferencial de células inflamatórias provenientes do lavado nasal após nenhuma das intervenções com o CPAP. Houve um aumento significante da percepção subjetiva dos sintomas respiratórios estudados após o uso do CPAP sem umidificação e com vazamento aéreo. Concluimos que o uso agudo do CPAP independente da umidificação ou vazamento aéreo, aumenta significativamente o transporte mucociliar nasal in vivo, não altera significativamente a transportabilidade do muco nasal nem a composição celular de amostras de lavado nasal. Já o uso do CPAP sem umidificação e com vazamento aéreo causa aumento significativo dos sintomas de ressecamento nasal e de garganta, coriza e obstrução nasal. / Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) is the treatment of choice for patients with Obstructive Sleep Apnea but yet nasal symptoms are often reported. Air leaks and changes of the respiratory epithelium are important in the development of nasal symptoms and heated humidification is used to alleviate these symptoms. The aim of this study was to investigate the acute effects of CPAP and the impact of heated humidification and air leak on the nasal mucociliary clearance and nasal inflammation of healthy volunteers. To this end we evaluated nasal mucociliary clearance in vivo (through the Saccharin Test), in vitro nasal mucus transportability (through the Frog Palate Model), nasal lavage and respiratory symptoms (through a Visual Analogue Scale) of sixteen healthy volunteers before and after acute CPAP application under different conditions: CPAP with and without heated humidification and with and without air leak. In vivo nasal mucociliary clearance increased significantly after all CPAP interventions. There was no significant difference in mucus transportability, total or differential inflammatory cell count from the nasal lavage after any CPAP intervention. There was a significant increase in the subjective perception of the respiratory symptoms studied after the use of CPAP without humidification and with air leak. We conclude that the acute use of CPAP independently of humidification or air leak significantly increases in vivo nasal mucociliary clearance, doesn\'t change mucus transportability and total or differential cell count. However, the use o CPAP without humidification and with air leak significantly increased nasal and throat dryness, coryza and nasal obstruction subjective perception.

A necessidade de intubação e uso de ventilação mecânica (VM) na prematuridade está relacionada à chamada lesão pulmonar induzida pela ventilação (VILI) e consequente displasia broncopulmonar (DBP). Estudos com animais e também em humanos mostraram que breves períodos de VM são suficientes para a liberação de interleucinas pró-inflamatórias. Outras formas de VM que regulam o volume-corrente evitando o volutrauma e as ventilações não invasivas como a pressão positiva contínua em via aérea por pronga nasal (CPAPn) parecem medidas protetoras ou menos lesivas para VILI. Esses efeitos protetores do CPAPn não foram ainda estudados em humanos. Objetivo: avaliar os níveis plasmáticos da interleucina (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10 e fator de necrose tumoral (TNF)-α em recém-nascidos tão logo instituído CPAPn e duas horas após. Secundariamente, avaliação dessa resposta inflamatória em pacientes que necessitaram de VM. Metodologia: estudo de coorte prospectivo, incluindo recém-nascidos admitidos com idade gestacional (IG) de 28-35 semanas e necessidade de assistência ventilatória, excluindo malformações, infecção congênita, sepse, surfactante profilático e suporte ventilatório em sala de parto. Amostras de sangue coletadas nesses dois momentos. Realizada descrição das variáveis em medianas e interquartis (p25-p75), empregado Teste de Wilcoxon. Resultados: 43 recém-nascidos, médias de peso 1883,5±580g e IG 32±2,4semanas, 23 (53%) receberam CPAPn como primeira modalidade ventilatória. Pré-termos após duas horas de VM apresentaram níveis significativamente maiores de IL-6, TNF-α e IL-8. Já os níveis de IL-6 reduziram significativamente após duas horas de CPAPn. Em 15 dos 22 (68%) neonatos cujas mães receberam corticoide pré-natal, as medianas das citocinas foram menores no início do uso do CPAPn, mas esse efeito não se sustentou duas horas após. O uso de surfactante pelos prematuros em VM não alterou a resposta inflamatória em comparação aos que não necessitaram do fármaco. Conclusão: demonstramos que os RN em CPAPn apresentaram mínima liberação de citocinas pro-inflamatórias e essa modalidade pode ter um papel protetor - nesse estudo potencializado pelo uso de corticoide ante natal. Por outro lado, VM promove significativa resposta inflamatória, estimulando-se CPAPn como estratégia ventilatória inicial protetora ao prematuro maior de 28 semanas de IG com desconforto respiratório moderado. Ainda assim, serão necessários mais estudos para determinar o papel de outras formas de ventilação não invasiva e outras formas de VM consideradas protetoras na prevenção da VILI. Essa nova compreensão dos mecanismos de lesão envolvendo resposta inflamatória mediada pelas citocinas possibilitará o desenvolvimento de novas estratégias no cuidado dos recém-nascidos prematuros. / The need for intubation and mechanical ventilation (MV) in preterm infants is related to ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI) and subsequent bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD). Studies in animals and in humans have shown that short periods of MV are enough for the release of pro-inflammatory interleukins. Other forms of MV that regulate tidal volume avoiding volutrauma and non- invasive ventilation such as continuous positive airway pressure by nasal prongs (nCPAP) seem protective measures against VILI. These protective effects of nCPAP have not been studied in humans. Objective: To evaluate the plasma levels of interleukin (IL) - 1β , IL - 6 , IL - 8 , IL - 10 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) - α in preterm infants as soon as established nCPAP and two hours after. Secondarily, to evaluate this inflammatory response in patients who required MV. Methods: Prospective cohort including newborns admitted with gestational age (GA) of 28-35 weeks and requiring ventilation support, excluding malformations, congenital infections, sepsis, previous surfactant use and ventilatory support need in the delivery room. Blood samples were collected at those two moments. Cytokines were described as medians and interquartile ranges (p25 - p75), and Wilcoxon test was performed. Results: 43 newborns, medium weight 1883.5 ± 580g and gestational age of 32 ± 2.4 weeks, 23 (53 %) received nCPAP as the first ventilatory mode. Preterm two hours after MV had significantly higher levels of IL - 6, TNF - α and IL - 8. The levels of IL - 6 decreased significantly two hours after nCPAP. In 15 of 22 (68 %) neonates whose mothers received antenatal corticosteroids, the median of cytokines were lower at the onset of the nCPAP, but this effect was not sustained after two hours. The use of surfactant in preterm infants in MV did not alter the inflammatory response compared to those who did not need the drug. Conclusion: we demonstrated that nCPAP presents minimal release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and may have a protective role - in this study enhanced by the use of antenatal corticosteroids. Still, MV promotes significant inflammatory response, thus stimulating nCPAP as initial less harmful ventilatory strategy to preterm greater than 28 weeks of GA with moderate respiratory discomfort. Therefore, further studies are needed to determine the role of other forms of non-invasive ventilation and other forms of MV considered protective in preventing VILI. This new understanding of injury mechanisms involving inflammatory response mediated by cytokines allows the development of new strategies in the care of premature infants.

A necessidade de intubação e uso de ventilação mecânica (VM) na prematuridade está relacionada à chamada lesão pulmonar induzida pela ventilação (VILI) e consequente displasia broncopulmonar (DBP). Estudos com animais e também em humanos mostraram que breves períodos de VM são suficientes para a liberação de interleucinas pró-inflamatórias. Outras formas de VM que regulam o volume-corrente evitando o volutrauma e as ventilações não invasivas como a pressão positiva contínua em via aérea por pronga nasal (CPAPn) parecem medidas protetoras ou menos lesivas para VILI. Esses efeitos protetores do CPAPn não foram ainda estudados em humanos. Objetivo: avaliar os níveis plasmáticos da interleucina (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10 e fator de necrose tumoral (TNF)-α em recém-nascidos tão logo instituído CPAPn e duas horas após. Secundariamente, avaliação dessa resposta inflamatória em pacientes que necessitaram de VM. Metodologia: estudo de coorte prospectivo, incluindo recém-nascidos admitidos com idade gestacional (IG) de 28-35 semanas e necessidade de assistência ventilatória, excluindo malformações, infecção congênita, sepse, surfactante profilático e suporte ventilatório em sala de parto. Amostras de sangue coletadas nesses dois momentos. Realizada descrição das variáveis em medianas e interquartis (p25-p75), empregado Teste de Wilcoxon. Resultados: 43 recém-nascidos, médias de peso 1883,5±580g e IG 32±2,4semanas, 23 (53%) receberam CPAPn como primeira modalidade ventilatória. Pré-termos após duas horas de VM apresentaram níveis significativamente maiores de IL-6, TNF-α e IL-8. Já os níveis de IL-6 reduziram significativamente após duas horas de CPAPn. Em 15 dos 22 (68%) neonatos cujas mães receberam corticoide pré-natal, as medianas das citocinas foram menores no início do uso do CPAPn, mas esse efeito não se sustentou duas horas após. O uso de surfactante pelos prematuros em VM não alterou a resposta inflamatória em comparação aos que não necessitaram do fármaco. Conclusão: demonstramos que os RN em CPAPn apresentaram mínima liberação de citocinas pro-inflamatórias e essa modalidade pode ter um papel protetor - nesse estudo potencializado pelo uso de corticoide ante natal. Por outro lado, VM promove significativa resposta inflamatória, estimulando-se CPAPn como estratégia ventilatória inicial protetora ao prematuro maior de 28 semanas de IG com desconforto respiratório moderado. Ainda assim, serão necessários mais estudos para determinar o papel de outras formas de ventilação não invasiva e outras formas de VM consideradas protetoras na prevenção da VILI. Essa nova compreensão dos mecanismos de lesão envolvendo resposta inflamatória mediada pelas citocinas possibilitará o desenvolvimento de novas estratégias no cuidado dos recém-nascidos prematuros. / The need for intubation and mechanical ventilation (MV) in preterm infants is related to ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI) and subsequent bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD). Studies in animals and in humans have shown that short periods of MV are enough for the release of pro-inflammatory interleukins. Other forms of MV that regulate tidal volume avoiding volutrauma and non- invasive ventilation such as continuous positive airway pressure by nasal prongs (nCPAP) seem protective measures against VILI. These protective effects of nCPAP have not been studied in humans. Objective: To evaluate the plasma levels of interleukin (IL) - 1β , IL - 6 , IL - 8 , IL - 10 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) - α in preterm infants as soon as established nCPAP and two hours after. Secondarily, to evaluate this inflammatory response in patients who required MV. Methods: Prospective cohort including newborns admitted with gestational age (GA) of 28-35 weeks and requiring ventilation support, excluding malformations, congenital infections, sepsis, previous surfactant use and ventilatory support need in the delivery room. Blood samples were collected at those two moments. Cytokines were described as medians and interquartile ranges (p25 - p75), and Wilcoxon test was performed. Results: 43 newborns, medium weight 1883.5 ± 580g and gestational age of 32 ± 2.4 weeks, 23 (53 %) received nCPAP as the first ventilatory mode. Preterm two hours after MV had significantly higher levels of IL - 6, TNF - α and IL - 8. The levels of IL - 6 decreased significantly two hours after nCPAP. In 15 of 22 (68 %) neonates whose mothers received antenatal corticosteroids, the median of cytokines were lower at the onset of the nCPAP, but this effect was not sustained after two hours. The use of surfactant in preterm infants in MV did not alter the inflammatory response compared to those who did not need the drug. Conclusion: we demonstrated that nCPAP presents minimal release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and may have a protective role - in this study enhanced by the use of antenatal corticosteroids. Still, MV promotes significant inflammatory response, thus stimulating nCPAP as initial less harmful ventilatory strategy to preterm greater than 28 weeks of GA with moderate respiratory discomfort. Therefore, further studies are needed to determine the role of other forms of non-invasive ventilation and other forms of MV considered protective in preventing VILI. This new understanding of injury mechanisms involving inflammatory response mediated by cytokines allows the development of new strategies in the care of premature infants.