Au nord-est de la Sibérie, les Iakoutes, venus de la région du Baïkal il y a moins de sept siècles, élèvent chevaux et bovins sur les alaas, dans les vallées et la taïga sur le cours inférieur du fleuve Léna. <br />La bibliographie en russe concernant ce peuple est riche et comprend des récits de voyageurs, des comptes rendus d'administrateurs et des analyses et descriptions d'ethnographes d'avant 1917, de la période communiste et des années post-soviétiques. L'analyse théorique est alimentée par les sources occidentales, parmi lesquelles les travaux d'Evelyne Lot-Falck, de Laurence Delaby et de Roberte Hamayon sur les peuples de Sibérie ainsi que ceux de Jean-Pierre Digard sur le cheval et la domestication. <br />Cousins des peuples cavaliers turco-mongols d'Asie centrale, ils affirment leur appartenance à cet ensemble tout en mettant en avant leur originalité. <br />Concevant leur cheval davantage comme un animal de la forêt que comme du simple bétail, ils en pratiquent à l'élevage tout en préservant le caractère « sauvage » de l'animal. Dans un système domesticatoire qui ne tente pas de soumettre l'animal, celui-ci ci conserve, aussi bien dans les faits qu'à travers les symboles, une place entre animal domestique et bête sauvage. <br />Pour les Iakoutes à l'économie binaire, dont l'équilibre entre chasse et élevage a fluctué en fonction de l'histoire de la société et des contraintes naturelles, le cheval représente un animal idéal. Dans un système de pensée, articulé entre chamanisme cynégétique et pastoral, l'étalon chef de harde, au tempérament fougueux et indépendant, est à la fois un moyen de transport et un double symboliques du chamane lors des rituels. Par ailleurs, il constitue le meilleur objet d'échange dans la relation que les humains pensent entretenir avec des esprits donateurs de chevaux, notamment au cours du rite du kyjdaa, dont les récits font remonter la pratique au XVIIIe siècle, période mouvementée de l'histoire où les riches légitimèrent leur statut grâce à l'installation sur le territoire de l'administration de l'empire tsariste. <br />Progressivement, l'échange avec les esprits, qui se déroulait sur le mode égalitaire du chamanisme cynégétique, se verticalise et prend la forme d'une dépendance symbolique envers des esprits, non plus animaux mais ancêtres pourvoyeurs de bétail, dont il faut implorer les bienfaits. Parallèlement à ce phénomène, émerge à côté de la figure de l'esprit Ürüŋ Ajyy Tojon, que les Iakoutes placent à la cime de leur panthéon, celle du Terrible D'öhögöj, protecteur des hommes et des chevaux, dont les dons sont bienvenus et la colère crainte. <br />Avant la politique de collectivisation en vigueur dans les années 1920-1930, le cheval était doté d'une importance utilitaire incontestable et son rôle symbolique était déjà chanté par les conteurs d'épopées, qui faisaient l'apologie des héros fondateurs de lignées. A présent, l'équidé ne fait plus partie de la vie quotidienne de tous les Iakoutes : plus mangé que monté, il acquiert une signification symbolique inversement proportionnelle à sa disparition du paysage. Ainsi, le processus de reconstruction nationale qui a suivi la chute de l'Union Soviétique a érigé le cheval au statut d'emblème de la République Sakha (Iakoutie), de sorte qu'aujourd'hui les Iakoutes désignent à la fois leur peuple et leur cheval comme les « fils de l'esprit D'öhögöj ». <br />L'exemple iakoute démontre l'importance de la figure du cheval dans le système de pensée d'un peuple chasseur et éleveur de Sibérie, ainsi que le parallélisme entre l'amoindrissement de la fonction utilitaire d'un artefact et le renforcement de la symbolique dont il est le support.

L'espèce canine est la plus ancienne espèce domestiquée, il y a environ 15.000 ans, et se compose aujourd'hui de plus de 350 races issues d'une sélection artificielle drastique et de croisements consanguins pratiqués durant les derniers siècles. Mon travail de thèse a pour objectif l'étude de la période dominée par la sélection naturelle au cours de l'évolution des canidés et la période récente de la création des races par une sélection artificielle intense. Nous avons identifié le catalogue des gènes sous sélection positive dans 10 espèces (chien, Homme, ouistiti, macaque, orang-outan, chimpanzé, souris, rat, cheval et vache) à partir de 10.730 gènes en relation d'orthologie de type 1:1. L'espèce canine présente plus de gènes sous sélection positive en commun avec les Laurasatheria et les rongeurs qu'à l'attendu. Nous avons ensuite identifié le catalogue des régions de différenciation alléliques entre races de chien à partir de données de génotypage de 170.000 SNPs de 456 chiens de 30 races, en collaboration avec l'équipe du Dr Matthew Webster (Université d'Uppsala en Suède) dans le cadre du consortium européen de génétique du chien LUPA. Ces régions sont candidates pour être les cibles de la sélection artificielle. Ce projet se poursuit actuellement afin de comparer les sélections naturelles et artificielles et de déterminer s'il existe des régions du génome qui sont constamment affectés par la sélection ; et de déterminer si l'espèce canine peut-elle être considérée comme une simulation réduite, mais accélérée de la radiation des mammifères.

<p>The genetic basis for behavioural traits is largely unknown. The overall aim of this thesis was to find genes with importance for behavioural traits related to fear and anxiety. Microarray analysis was used to screen expression profiles of brain regions important for emotional behaviour in dogs, wolves, foxes and mice. In a first experiment, dogs and their wild ancestors the wolves were compared. Our results suggested that directed selection for behaviour might have resulted in expression changes in few genes acting on several brain functions, possibly affecting behaviour. However, the observed expressional differences were confounded with environmental effects. This was addressed in a second study on domesticated silver foxes. By correlating behaviour and brain gene expression in foxes selected for tameness to non-selected foxes raised in the same environment, we found large behavioural differences but only few genes with differential expression in the brain. Fifteen of the 40 genes showing evidence of expression difference were related to haem or haemoglobins. Further studies showed an additive genetic effect on brain gene expression, similar to the additive genetic inheritance of behaviour, indicating an involvement in domestication. Transcriptional profiling was also used for finding genes involved with the sleep disorder narcolepsy. Narcoleptic Doberman pinschers homozygous for the canarc-1 mutation were compared to their unaffected heterozygots revealing reduced expression of three genes, TAC1, PENK and SOCS2, with relevance to the narcoleptic phenotype. Finally gene expression was investigated in relation to anxiety-related traits in a mouse model. Surprisingly, as in the fox study, genes coding for haemoglobins indicated differential expression in the brain between animals with different anxiety levels. Our combined results suggest that genes like haemoglobins, best known for their function in oxygen transport in blood, may also participate in brain functions related to decreased anxiety in domestic animals. </p>

The genetic basis for behavioural traits is largely unknown. The overall aim of this thesis was to find genes with importance for behavioural traits related to fear and anxiety. Microarray analysis was used to screen expression profiles of brain regions important for emotional behaviour in dogs, wolves, foxes and mice. In a first experiment, dogs and their wild ancestors the wolves were compared. Our results suggested that directed selection for behaviour might have resulted in expression changes in few genes acting on several brain functions, possibly affecting behaviour. However, the observed expressional differences were confounded with environmental effects. This was addressed in a second study on domesticated silver foxes. By correlating behaviour and brain gene expression in foxes selected for tameness to non-selected foxes raised in the same environment, we found large behavioural differences but only few genes with differential expression in the brain. Fifteen of the 40 genes showing evidence of expression difference were related to haem or haemoglobins. Further studies showed an additive genetic effect on brain gene expression, similar to the additive genetic inheritance of behaviour, indicating an involvement in domestication. Transcriptional profiling was also used for finding genes involved with the sleep disorder narcolepsy. Narcoleptic Doberman pinschers homozygous for the canarc-1 mutation were compared to their unaffected heterozygots revealing reduced expression of three genes, TAC1, PENK and SOCS2, with relevance to the narcoleptic phenotype. Finally gene expression was investigated in relation to anxiety-related traits in a mouse model. Surprisingly, as in the fox study, genes coding for haemoglobins indicated differential expression in the brain between animals with different anxiety levels. Our combined results suggest that genes like haemoglobins, best known for their function in oxygen transport in blood, may also participate in brain functions related to decreased anxiety in domestic animals.

<p>On 17 July 1998, a total of 120 States, including Malawi, voted for the adoption of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. The ermanent ICC became operational on 1 July 2002. The ICC has jurisdiction over the crime of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. These crimes are the most serious crimes of international concern. The&nbsp / ICC operates under the principle of complementarity, which entails that the ICC will only assume jurisdiction over these core crimes in the event that a State Party is unwilling and unable genuinely to carry out the investigation and prosecution. States Parties have, therefore, the primary responsibility to investigate and prosecute these crimes. The States&nbsp / Parties must therefore establish jurisdiction to conduct investigations and prosecution of these core crimes. It is from that background, coupled with the historical evolution and development of international criminal law, with regard to individual criminal responsibility, that this paper argues for the implementation of the Rome Statute in Malawi, through&nbsp / domestic legislation.The paper thus argues that only through domestic legislation can the purports of the Rome Statute be achieved and fulfilled by Malawi.</p>

In order to examine how children's literature might be translated, two different English translations of two Swedish picture books have been analyzed. The original Swedish books are Rävjakten and Pannkakstårtan by Sven Nordqvist. Rävjakten was translated as The Fox Hunt in 1988 and as The Fox Hunt in 2000. Pannkakstårtan was translated as Pancake Pie in 1985 and as The Birthday Cake in 1999. Literary translation in general, specific translation issues for children's literature, and trends in international English style have been considered. Analysis of the four texts has been made, with consideration given to the following areas: changes in illustrations, layout, or format; text changes; lexical choices; and retention, deletion, or modification of names and culturally specific references. The analysis revealed that the following tendencies were true for the later translations: foreignization of the text, word-for-word translation of the text, and a neutral international English variety.

Domestic animals have rich phenotypic diversity that can be explored to advance our understanding of the relationship between molecular genetics and phenotypic variation. Since the advent of second generation sequencing, it has become easier to identify structural variants and associate them with phenotypic outcomes. This thesis details studies on three such variants associated with monogenic traits. The first studies on Rose-comb in the chicken were published over a century ago, seminally describing Mendelian inheritance and epistatic interaction in animals. Homozygosity for the otherwise dominant Rose-comb allele was later associated with reduced rooster fertility. We show that a 7.38 Mb inversion is causal for Rose-comb, and that two alleles exist for Rose-comb, R1 and R2. A novel genomic context for the gene MNR2 is causative for the comb phenotype, and the bisection of the gene CCDC108 is associated with fertility issues. The recombined R2 allele has intact CCDC108, and normal fertility. The dominant phenotype Greying with Age in horses was previously associated with an intronic duplication in STX17. By utilising second generation sequencing we have examined the genomic region surrounding the duplication in detail, and excluded all other discovered variants as causative for Grey. Dun is the ancestral coat colour of equids, where the individual is mostly pale in colour, but carries intensely pigmented primitive markings, most notably a dorsal stripe. Dun is a dominant trait, and yet most domestic horses are non-dun in colour and intensely pigmented. We show that Dun colour is established by radially asymmetric expression of the transcription factor TBX3 in hair follicles. This results in a microscopic spotting phenotype on the level of the individual hair, giving the impression of pigment dilution. Non-dun colour is caused by two different alleles, non-dun1 and non-dun2, both of which disrupt the TBX3-mediated regulation of pigmentation. Non-dun1 is associated with a SNP variant 5 kb downstream of TBX3, and non-dun2 with a 1.6 kb deletion that overlaps the non-dun1 SNP. Homozygotes for non-dun2 show a more intensely pigmented appearance than horses with one or two non-dun1 alleles. We have also shown by genotyping of ancient DNA that non-dun1 predates domestication.

This dissertation investigated the bottom-up technology transmission process in a country with varied levels of technology diffusion, such as Chile. In particular, I explored how children act as technology brokers within their families by influencing their parents' adoption of and learning about digital media, so as to include older generations in the digital environment. In order to do this, I measured to what extent this process occurs, I proposed a typology of factors that intervene in the process and analyzed the outcomes variables related to the phenomenon. Methodologically, I used a mixed-methods research approach by combining in-depth interviews with a self-administered paper-and-pencil survey taken by dyads of one parent and one child. I analyzed 28 interviews involving one 12 to 18-year-old child and one parent or legal guardian (14 dyads) stratified by socioeconomic background, age, and gender. In addition, I conducted the parent-child survey among school-aged children and their parents in three schools, stratified by socioeconomic status. One class per cohort from 7th to 11th grades was randomly surveyed. In total, 381 students and 251 parents completed the surveys. The analyses showed that bottom-up technology transmission occurs at some degree for all the technologies investigated in this study. However, children's influence should not be overstated because they play only one part among a number of factors involved in the digital inclusion of older generations. It also established a typology of factors related to the process at different levels, including structural influences, family structure, strategies employed by youth, and psychological dispositions of parents. Specifically, the analyses consistently found that this process was more likely to occur among people from a lower socioeconomic status. Also, the transmission was associated with more fluid parent-child interactions and occurred among parents who perceived the technology to be useful. Regarding the outcome variables, it demonstrated that this phenomenon is linked, although weakly, to greater levels of perceived competence among parents and higher esteem among young people. Finally, it suggested that bottom-up technology transmission is associated with the reduction of some socioeconomic gaps in digital media use. / text

<p>On 17 July 1998, a total of 120 States, including Malawi, voted for the adoption of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. The ermanent ICC became operational on 1 July 2002. The ICC has jurisdiction over the crime of genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. These crimes are the most serious crimes of international concern. The&nbsp / ICC operates under the principle of complementarity, which entails that the ICC will only assume jurisdiction over these core crimes in the event that a State Party is unwilling and unable genuinely to carry out the investigation and prosecution. States Parties have, therefore, the primary responsibility to investigate and prosecute these crimes. The States&nbsp / Parties must therefore establish jurisdiction to conduct investigations and prosecution of these core crimes. It is from that background, coupled with the historical evolution and development of international criminal law, with regard to individual criminal responsibility, that this paper argues for the implementation of the Rome Statute in Malawi, through&nbsp / domestic legislation.The paper thus argues that only through domestic legislation can the purports of the Rome Statute be achieved and fulfilled by Malawi.</p>

Malgré son importance économique, culturelle et historique, l'histoire évolutive du pommier cultivé (Malus domestica) ainsi que celle de ses apparentés sauvages supposés, restaient encore très peu connues. En s'appuyant sur les nouvelles approches de génétique des populations (approximate Bayesian computation) avec l'utilisation de marqueurs microsatellites et de séquences nucléaires, cette thèse a eu pour objectif d'étudier, à différentes échelles évolutives (phylogéographie, spéciation, domestication), les mécanismes de diversification naturelle et artificielle dans le genre Malus. Mes travaux ont porté sur quatre espèces de pommiers sauvages distribuées à travers l'Eurasie (Malus orientalis (Caucase), Malus sieversii (Asie Centrale), Malus sylvestris (Europe), et Malus baccata (Sibérie)) et sur la seule espèce domestiquée du genre, Malus domestica. Cette thèse s'est articulée en quatre parties visant respectivement à inférer : (i) l'histoire de la domestication du pommier cultivé depuis son centre d'origine en Asie Centrale, (ii) l'histoire de la recolonisation post-glaciaire du pommier sauvage Européen (M. sylvestris), (iii) les histoires de spéciation entre les cinq espèces de Malus, (iv) les hybridations interspécifiques et les capacités de dispersion des trois principaux contributeurs (M. sylvestris, M. sieversii et M. orientalis) au génome du pommier cultivé. L'étude des mécanismes de diversification artificielle montre que les processus de domestication sont originaux chez cet arbre fruitier, de par l'absence de goulet d'étranglement et l'existence d'introgressions post-domestication fréquentes par une autre espèce sauvage (M. sylvestris) que l'espèce ancestrale (M. sieversii). L'étude des processus de diversification naturelle (phylogéographie, spéciation et structure des populations) révèlent de grandes tailles de populations, de forts flux de gènes et de faibles structures génétiques spatiales chez chacune des espèces. Cette thèse a aussi révélé de forts taux d'hybridations interspécifiques, en particulier de fortes introgressions des espèces de pommiers sauvages par le pommier cultivé en Europe et en Asie Centrale. Cette étude a permis l'amélioration des connaissances de la structuration des populations de pommiers sauvages ayant contribué au génome du pommier cultivé ainsi que de l'étendue des hybridations du pommier cultivé avec les espèces sauvages. Ces travaux revêtent une grande importance autant pour la conservation des pommiers sauvages, pour le maintien de leur intégrité dans des habitats fragmentés que pour l'amélioration variétale du pommier domestiqué.