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BACKGROUND: More than 1 billion people live in societies where consanguineous marriages are common. When children are born to consanguineous unions, there is an increased probability of the expression of single-gene disorders with a recessive mode of inheritance. There are presumptive social benefits of consanguineous marriages reported in the literature. METHODS: The UK's Born in Bradford birth cohort study recruited 12 453 women at 26-28 weeks' gestation between 2007 and 2010. In all, 11 396 completed a questionnaire, including questions about their relationship to their baby's father. We compared Pakistani and Other ethnic groups in consanguineous relationships and Pakistani, Other and White British groups not in consanguineous relationships, calculating percentages and age-adjusted prevalence ratios (95% confidence intervals). RESULTS: In the Pakistani group, 59.3% of women (n = 3038) were blood relatives of their baby's father. Consanguinity was uncommon in the Other ethnic group (7.3%, n = 127) and rare (n = 5) in the White British group. Compared with non-consanguineous counterparts, mothers in consanguineous relationships were socially and economically disadvantaged (e.g. never employed, less likely to have higher education). The Pakistani consanguineous group's social, economic and health lifestyle circumstances were equivalent to, in some cases better than, women in non-consanguineous relationships (e.g. up-to-date in paying bills, or in disagreeing that they wished for more warmth in their marital relationship). The consanguineous relationship group had less separation/divorce. Rates of cigarette smoking during pregnancy were lower in mothers in consanguineous relationships. CONCLUSION: Debate about consanguinity should balance the potential protective effect of consanguineous relationships with established genetic risk of congenital anomaly in children.

Globally, coal-fired power plant (CFPP) is a major source of mercury. China is developing its first National Implementation Plan on Mercury Control, which priorities the control of emissions from CFPPs. While social benefits play an important role in designing environmental policies in China, the benefits associated with mercury control are not yet understood, mainly due to the scientific challenges to trace mercury's emissions-to-impacts path. This study evaluates the benefits of mercury reductions in China's CFPPs for China and its three neighboring countries in East Asia. Four policy scenarios are analyzed following the policies-to-impacts path, which links a global atmospheric model to health benefit analysis models to estimate the economic gains from avoided mercury-related adverse health outcomes under each scenario, and take into account key uncertainties in the path. Under the most stringent scenario, the benefits of mercury reduction by 2030 are projected to be $432 billion (95% CI: $166–941 billion), with the benefits for China and the neighboring countries accounting for 96% and 4% of the total benefits, respectively. Policy scenario analysis indicates that coal washing generates the greatest benefits in the near term, whereas upgrading air pollution control devices maximizes health benefits in the long term.

This paper focuses on the practical application of operational management. It is based on theoretical nature of manufacturing process control and tries to apply it to the case of a specific enterprise in the textile industry. It analyzes the way of production organization, when it cooperates with others to sew clothing, and determines, what economic benefits this cooperation brings in case of one month and more generally.

Devido à importância do modal rodoviário para a economia brasileira no que diz respeito à sua participação na matriz de transporte de cargas, à elevada participação no consumo de combustíveis fósseis (óleo diesel) e nas emissões de CO2, esta Tese avaliou se rodovias em melhores estados de conservação implicam benefícios econômicos e ambientais. Os benefícios econômicos disseram respeito à avaliação dos seguintes parâmetros: consumo de combustível, tempo de viagem e gasto com manutenção do veículo. Já os benefícios ambientais referiram-se às reduções das externalidades negativas resultantes da diminuição nas emissões de CO2. Foram realizadas coletas de dados primários relacionados ao desempenho observado em caminhões em rodovias com diferentes condições de infra-estrutura. Nesse sentido, foram conduzidos dois conjuntos de experimentos, envolvendo rotas e tipos diferentes de caminhões, aos quais foram acoplados computadores de bordo para auxiliar na coleta dos dados. O primeiro conjunto de experimentos envolveu quatro rotas, as quais foram percorridas por um caminhão Volvo FH12, fabricado em 2004. Num total de 48 viagens, foram observados o consumo de combustível, e o perfil das velocidades em cada trajeto. Os resultados indicaram a existência de benefícios econômicos e ambientais para as rotas em melhor estado de conservação. No segundo conjunto de experimentos, foram selecionadas duas rotas em diferentes estados de conservação., nas quais dois caminhões de fabricantes distintos (Scania R124-420 e MB 1944S) realizaram um total de 40 viagens. Nesses experimentos, também foram comparados os resultados observados em cada tipo de veículo, tendo sido possível concluir que o tipo de tecnologia apenas impactou no consumo de combustível. Finalmente, os dados dos dois conjuntos de experimentos foram agregados, a fim de estimar valores mais próximos à realidade, já que na prática, há diversos tipos de modelos e fabricantes de caminhão. Ainda assim, os resultados obtidos confirmam a existência de benefícios econômicos e ambientais resultantes de viagens em rotas com melhor infra-estrutura: há um aumento na eficiência energética em rotas melhores, implicando menor consumo de combustível e menores níveis de emissão de CO2. A análise estatística dos resultados sugeriu que, em geral, os dados relacionados ao consumo de combustível eram significativos ao nível de significância de 5%, rejeitando a hipótese nula de que o consumo médio das rotas em piores estados de conservação é estatisticamente igual ao consumo médio observado em rotas com melhores condições. Portanto, tratou-se de indicação em favor da hipótese alternativa, de que o consumo médio observado em rotas piores é maior do que aquele em rotas melhores. / Due to importance of the road transportation for the Brazilian economy related to its participation in the matrix of load transport, to its high participation in the fossil fuels consumption (diesel) and in the CO2 emissions, this study evaluated if highways in better state of conservation imply in economic and environmental benefits. The economic benefits were related to the evaluation of the following parameters: fuel consumption, duration of the trip and expenses on vehicle maintenance. The environmental benefits related to the CO2 emissions reduction. It was collected primary data related to the performance observed in trucks on highways with different infrastructure conditions. In this aspect, it was carried out two sets of experiments, involving different routes and types of trucks, to which cutting edge computers were connect to assist the collection of the data. The first set of experiments involved four routes covered by a Volvo FH12 truck, manufactured in 2004. In a total of 48 trips, the fuel consumption, and the velocity profile in each passage were observed. The results showed the existence of economic and environmental benefits in the routes with better conservation. In the second set of experiments, two routes in different states of conservation were selected, in which two trucks from distinct manufacturers (Scania R124-420 and MB 1944S) performed a total of 40 trips. In these experiments, the results observed in each type of vehicle were compared, which allowed to conclude that the type of technology only impacted on the fuel consumption. Finally, the data of the two sets of experiments were aggregated, in order to approximate the values to the reality, once in reality there are several types of truck models and manufacturers. Still, the results confirm the existence of economic and environmental benefits deriving from trips in routes with better infrastructure: there is a gain in energy efficiency, resulting in less fuel consumption and lower levels of CO2 emissions. The statistical analysis of the results suggested that, in general, the data related to the fuel consumption were significant to the level of significance of 5%, rejecting the null hypothesis that the average fuel consumption in the routes in worse states of conservation is statistically equal to that observed in routes in better condition. Therefore, it is indicated that the alternative hypothesis is significant that the observed average consumption in worse routes is bigger than that observed in better routes.

This study researches the past, present and future role of ports, specifically the Ports of Tampa and Hamburg linked to their cities. It examines the legal structures of port authorities which play a major role in their economic priorities and impact their cities’ social, environmental and cultural quality of life. From a humanistic perspective, one can look at a port as a place or space. By animating ports, they may provide “ fields of care” over time, and a home with character for the region’s residents. In this case, their success needs to transcend economics, adding qualitative attributes to the region, such as clean air, water, good working conditions, adequate housing, public transportation, recreational provisions, public waterfront access and more. The Port of Tampa’s corporate style and largely state controlled management team prioritized diversification. As a result, the port essentially remained a feeder port. It depends on shipping phosphate (a non renewable resource), fertilizer, scrap metal, petroleum and other general cargo commodities. The port serves main (hub) and container ports which are more lucrative and environmentally less challenging. The Port of Hamburg, on the other hand, controlled by an elected local Senate, became a container hub port early on, and planned its future accordingly. Tampa’s traditional housing around the port was dissected; shopping, service and recreational areas around Tampa’s city core deteriorated, when Interstates 275, 4 and the Cross Town Expressway were constructed. Suburbs in rural areas were developed with little regard for public transportation infrastructure, recreation facilities, and pedestrian and bike paths. Most of Tampa’s waterfront, owned by its Port Authority, is leased out and fenced off to the public access. Redeveloped expensive and mostly empty downtown gentrified residences face parking garages, oil tanks, phosphate stags and scrap yards. Much of Harbor Island, close to downtown, is gated and gentrified. The Port of Hamburg, in contrast to the Port of Tampa, redeveloped an uninhabited warehouse region of its Port, named it Hafen City, thereby adding 40 percent to the core of the city. This cohesive theme is in the process of providing jobs, housing, public waterfront access, shopping, green spaces, museums a concert hall, a theater and more. Light-rail, subways trams, buses, pedestrian and bike paths link the Hafen City to the traditional city center. Hamburg’s waterfront remains open to the public by law. A comparison of both port cities shows that the Port of Tampa’s largely state controlled corporate style management team prioritizes short term economic results over an extended future planning at the expense of the region’s social, cultural and environmental climate. The Port of Hamburg’s management team, installed by the locally elected Senate, promotes the City’s economic, social, cultural and environmental quality. The above findings, suggest that developments of ports and their cities under democratically elected governments may produce various qualitative outcomes depending on the demand and supply curve of their residents’ input.

Devido à importância do modal rodoviário para a economia brasileira no que diz respeito à sua participação na matriz de transporte de cargas, à elevada participação no consumo de combustíveis fósseis (óleo diesel) e nas emissões de CO2, esta Tese avaliou se rodovias em melhores estados de conservação implicam benefícios econômicos e ambientais. Os benefícios econômicos disseram respeito à avaliação dos seguintes parâmetros: consumo de combustível, tempo de viagem e gasto com manutenção do veículo. Já os benefícios ambientais referiram-se às reduções das externalidades negativas resultantes da diminuição nas emissões de CO2. Foram realizadas coletas de dados primários relacionados ao desempenho observado em caminhões em rodovias com diferentes condições de infra-estrutura. Nesse sentido, foram conduzidos dois conjuntos de experimentos, envolvendo rotas e tipos diferentes de caminhões, aos quais foram acoplados computadores de bordo para auxiliar na coleta dos dados. O primeiro conjunto de experimentos envolveu quatro rotas, as quais foram percorridas por um caminhão Volvo FH12, fabricado em 2004. Num total de 48 viagens, foram observados o consumo de combustível, e o perfil das velocidades em cada trajeto. Os resultados indicaram a existência de benefícios econômicos e ambientais para as rotas em melhor estado de conservação. No segundo conjunto de experimentos, foram selecionadas duas rotas em diferentes estados de conservação., nas quais dois caminhões de fabricantes distintos (Scania R124-420 e MB 1944S) realizaram um total de 40 viagens. Nesses experimentos, também foram comparados os resultados observados em cada tipo de veículo, tendo sido possível concluir que o tipo de tecnologia apenas impactou no consumo de combustível. Finalmente, os dados dos dois conjuntos de experimentos foram agregados, a fim de estimar valores mais próximos à realidade, já que na prática, há diversos tipos de modelos e fabricantes de caminhão. Ainda assim, os resultados obtidos confirmam a existência de benefícios econômicos e ambientais resultantes de viagens em rotas com melhor infra-estrutura: há um aumento na eficiência energética em rotas melhores, implicando menor consumo de combustível e menores níveis de emissão de CO2. A análise estatística dos resultados sugeriu que, em geral, os dados relacionados ao consumo de combustível eram significativos ao nível de significância de 5%, rejeitando a hipótese nula de que o consumo médio das rotas em piores estados de conservação é estatisticamente igual ao consumo médio observado em rotas com melhores condições. Portanto, tratou-se de indicação em favor da hipótese alternativa, de que o consumo médio observado em rotas piores é maior do que aquele em rotas melhores. / Due to importance of the road transportation for the Brazilian economy related to its participation in the matrix of load transport, to its high participation in the fossil fuels consumption (diesel) and in the CO2 emissions, this study evaluated if highways in better state of conservation imply in economic and environmental benefits. The economic benefits were related to the evaluation of the following parameters: fuel consumption, duration of the trip and expenses on vehicle maintenance. The environmental benefits related to the CO2 emissions reduction. It was collected primary data related to the performance observed in trucks on highways with different infrastructure conditions. In this aspect, it was carried out two sets of experiments, involving different routes and types of trucks, to which cutting edge computers were connect to assist the collection of the data. The first set of experiments involved four routes covered by a Volvo FH12 truck, manufactured in 2004. In a total of 48 trips, the fuel consumption, and the velocity profile in each passage were observed. The results showed the existence of economic and environmental benefits in the routes with better conservation. In the second set of experiments, two routes in different states of conservation were selected, in which two trucks from distinct manufacturers (Scania R124-420 and MB 1944S) performed a total of 40 trips. In these experiments, the results observed in each type of vehicle were compared, which allowed to conclude that the type of technology only impacted on the fuel consumption. Finally, the data of the two sets of experiments were aggregated, in order to approximate the values to the reality, once in reality there are several types of truck models and manufacturers. Still, the results confirm the existence of economic and environmental benefits deriving from trips in routes with better infrastructure: there is a gain in energy efficiency, resulting in less fuel consumption and lower levels of CO2 emissions. The statistical analysis of the results suggested that, in general, the data related to the fuel consumption were significant to the level of significance of 5%, rejecting the null hypothesis that the average fuel consumption in the routes in worse states of conservation is statistically equal to that observed in routes in better condition. Therefore, it is indicated that the alternative hypothesis is significant that the observed average consumption in worse routes is bigger than that observed in better routes.

This bachelor thesis is based on a field study conducted in Nairobi, Kenya, and intends to elucidate the systematic crimes against humanity that the inability to handle menstruation properly causes every day. Women who live under poor circumstances and lack access to basic needs, such as sanitary facilities and running water are the ones who suffer the most. Menstruating women are victims of not only physical and mental abuse, but also the stigma and neglect pervading the subject. This leads to the exclusion of women, both in school and at work, which in turn causes negative economic effects for the whole society. Besides elucidating the substantial economic and health consequences that menstruation can result in, the purpose of the thesis is to examine the market conditions in Nairobi and suggest sustainable solutions for menstrual cups. The menstrual cup is a durable product that might improve the situation for both women and the society, because of its suitable features. The study focuses on the informal settlements of Nairobi, and the purpose is not to examine other informal settlements or rural areas in Kenya.  This is a qualitative study, primarily based on a field study, profound interviews, as well as a limited survey. To achieve the purpose, we have tried to answer questions concerning the fundamental conditions for the current market of menstrual cups; the conditions for an increase in demand; and what a well-functioning structure for the menstrual cup would be. Besides answering these research questions, the methods were necessary in order to get an understanding of the conditions in Nairobi. The interview respondents represent both the consumers and the producers, with the purpose of getting a wider perspective regarding the market conditions. The questionnaire targeted the parents and caretakers, whom are the economic decision makers in the households. The aim was to get a comprehension about the life situations and economic conditions characterising the informal settlements, but also to get a general idea about the attitude towards the menstrual cup, since the product is rather unfamiliar.  The current market structure is characterised by charity organisations who distribute the menstrual cups for free. Their main concept is to educate young girls and secure a better future for them by securing the supply of menstrual management products. The study has shown the biggest challenge to overcome is the inability to pay, however, the result shows there are different possible solutions for producers and distributors to approach the market of menstrual cups. Instalments, price discrimination, Multi-Level Marketing, governmental subsidies and sponsoring from global organisations are some of the proposed strategies discussed in this thesis.  A sustainable market solution is necessary to utilise the positive externalities that emerges from menstrual cup usage, and satisfy the need for good quality menstrual management products in Nairobi in the long run. Today, because the cup usage is low, the positive externalities are lost, resulting in deadweight losses.  In conclusion, there are several possible market strategies for both incumbents and potential new entrants. The study has also found that menstrual health does not get enough recognition by neither national authorities, nor global actors, like the United Nations. This matter needs to be acknowledged in order to improve the conditions for millions of women suffering from menstrual related problems today.

Agenda 2030, som är en sammanfattande beskrivning av FN:s globala hållbarhetsmål, handlar om att tillsammans kunna hjälpa till att reducera den miljöpåverkan som finns i samhället idag (FN, 2015). En av de branscher som har störst inflytande på växthuseffekten är byggbranschen och därför finns det stor möjlighet här att bidra till en positiv utveckling. Syftet med den här rapporten är att undersöka huruvida det är ekonomiskt lönsamt för projektet för både beställare och entreprenörer att tänka hållbart, varvid rapporten kommer att utgå från en fallstudie i en marksänkningsentreprenad i Slakthusområdet. För att kunna uppmuntra entreprenörer och beställare att tänka mer hållbart har återanvändandet av schaktmassor, genom branschsamverkan, studerats. De frågeställningar som studerats i rapporten är följande: Hur kan branschsamverkan bidra till lägre koldioxidutsläpp och ekonomiska besparingar? Och hur stor blir den samhällsekonomisk nyttan av dessa klimatbesparingar i kronor? Resultaten i denna rapport är baserade på kvalitativa studier från anläggningsprojektet i Slakthusområdet. För att kunna implementera en kalkyl av den ekonomiska- samt samhällsekonomiska nytta i Slakthusområdet har två olika scenarion jämförts, nämligen scenario 1 och scenario 2. Scenario 1 efterliknar Skanskas befintliga marksänkningsentreprenad, vars projektmål är att reducera klimatpåverkan med 50 procent jämfört med en traditionellt driven marksänkingsentreprendad. Scenario 2 utgår från en traditionellt driven marksänkingsentrprenad. Resultatet av scenarioanalysen visar på att Scenario 1 är särskilt gynnsamt både ekonomsikt samt ur ett samhällsekonomisk perspektiv, där stora besparingar har påvisats i projektet. Resultatet visade att det nästan kostade 10 miljoner kronor mer att tillämpa scenario 2 jämfört med att tillämpa scenario 1. Dessutom resulterade scenario 1, utöver den ekonomiska fördelen, även en samhällsekonomisk nytta om ungefär 2,6 miljoner kronor. Det analytiska ramverket som använts i rapporten är cirkulär ekonomi. / Agenda 2030, which is a summary description of the UN’s global sustainability goals, is about being able to work together to help reduce the environmental impact that exists in society today (UN, 2015). One of the industries that has the greatest influence on the greenhouse effect is the construction industry and therefore there is a great opportunity here to contribute to a positive development. The purpose of this report is to examine whether it is economically viable for the project for both clients and contractors to think sustainably. In order to encourage contractors and clients to think more sustainably, the reuse of excavated masses, through industry collaboration, has been studied. The issues studied in the report are the following: How can industry collaboration contribute to lower carbon dioxide emissions and economic savings? And how big will the socio-economic benefit of these climate savings be? The results in this report are based on qualitative studies from an urban development project in Stockholm, Sweden. In order to be able to implement a calculation of the economic and socio-economic benefits in the project area, two different scenarios have been compared, namely scenario 1 and scenario 2. Scenario 1 mimics Skanska’s existing ground lowering contract, whose project goal is to reduce climate impact by 50 percent compared to a traditionally driven ground lowering contract. Scenario 2 is based on a traditionally driven ground lowering contract. The results of the scenario analysis show that Scenario 1 is particularly favorable both from an economic point of view and from a socio-economic perspective, where large savings have been demonstrated in the project. The result showed that it cost almost 10 million SEK more to apply scenario 2 compared to applying scenario 1. In addition, scenario 1 also resulted in a socio-economic benefit of approximately 2.6 million SEK. The analytical framework used in the report is circular economy.

Sverige planerar för en av de största infrastrukturinvesteringarna någonsin i Sveriges historia. I fokus står en ny höghastighetsjärnväg mellan Stockholm, Göteborg och Malmö som ska möjliggöra resor på två till två och en halv timme mellan städerna. Runt denna investering finns en ambition att samla andra samhällsbyggande åtgärder, som ökat bostadsbyggande och förbättringar i lokal och regional kollektivtrafik, för att genom en samordnad planering få ut så stora nyttor som möjligt. För detta ändamål har regeringen tillsatt den statliga utredningen Sverigeförhandlingen. En viktig del av deras arbete är att få fram en finansieringslösning för den nya statliga transportinfrastrukturen där medfinansiering från kommuner, regioner och andra aktörer står för en betydande andel. Idén kring medfinansiering är baserad på att aktörerna ska bidra till finansieringen som motsvarar de nyttor transportinfrastrukturen bidrar till. Alltså måste det gå att uppskatta att på förhand hur mycket nyttor som uppstår och vad de är värda. Sverigeförhandlingen har valt klassificera nyttorna i sex kategorier där ”social nyttor” är en av dessa. Däremot finns ingen etablerad metodik för att uppskatta dessa. Det här examensarbetet undersöker vilken social påverkan transportinfrastrukturen ger upphov till. Detta görs genom att studera samband mellan tillgänglighet, alltså hur transportinfrastrukturen ger möjlighet för människor att nå olika målpunkter, och ett antal sociala förhållanden. Tillgänglighetsmåttet valdes utifrån studier av tidigare forskning samt etablerade modeller för uppskattning av andra nyttor av transportinfrastruktur. För att veta vilka sociala förhållanden som är intressanta att undersöka har en studie av Svensk och internationell litteratur på området genomförts. Sambandsanalysen bygger på statistiska metoder där data för Sveriges kommuner används. Metoden ger möjlighet till att identifiera samvariation mellan tillgänglighet och sociala förhållanden men är inte tillräcklig för att säkerställa att tillgänglighet är en orsak till de sociala förhållandena. Resultaten tyder på att tillgänglighet har statistiskt signifikanta samband med ett antal indikatorer för sociala förhållanden. Exempel på två av dessa är ungdomsidrottande och andelen barn som går i förskola. Det visade sig att de flesta av de sociala förhållanden som har signifikanta samband med tillgänglighet har en samvariation som tyder på att tillgänglighet korrelerar med positiva sociala förhållanden. Detta tyder på att tillgänglighet kan ha samband med faktorer som kan tolkas som sociala nyttor. Dock kan inget sägas om tillgänglighet är en orsak till detta eller om det är någon icke studerad orsak som ger upphov till detta. Dessutom påverkas tillgänglighetsmåttet av andra faktorer än enbart tillgång till transportinfrastruktur och därför går det inte utifrån dessa samband att säkert säga att de beror på transportsystemet. För att sociala nyttor ska kunna kvantifieras och ligga till grund för medfinansiering krävs vidare studier. En viktig uppgift är att med hjälp av bättre data och mer avancerade metoder få fram bättre uppskattningar av sambanden samt orsaksrelationerna. Det krävs också studier för hur sociala nyttor ska värderas i monetära termer ur ett samhällsekonomiskt perspektiv. / Sweden is currently planning for one of its largest investments in transport infrastructure ever. A cornerstone in the project is a new high speed railroad between Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö. A considerable portion of the funding will consist of co-funding from municipalities, regions and private actors that will benefit from the infrastructure. The amount of co-funding is based on the total benefits that each actor will receive. Therefore these benefits must be able to be quantified. This report aims to study relationships between transport infrastructure and a number of social consequences that previous research has indicated being interesting. The method used is based on econometric methods that enable identification of statistical relationships using a simple linear model. This requires measures of transport infrastructure and indicators for social well-being which are chosen through a study of literature and established models quantifying wider economic benefits from transport infrastructure.The report suggests that a gravitybased accessibility measure is suitable for quantifying transport infrastructure in this context. The results from the econometrical model ssuggest that there are several significant relationships between accessibility and social well-being. In general accessibility seems to correlate with positive social consequences. However it is likely that endogeneity is biasing the results and make it difficult to draw any conclusions on causal relationships. It is stated that further research studying these relationships more carefully with better adapted data for the purpose is required to be able to obtain quantified estimates that can be used in co-funding of transport infrastructure.