The marine ecosystems are fundamental for human welfare. A number of current environmental pressures need attention, and the formulation of management strategies requires information from a variety of analytical dimensions. The linkage between environmental change and resulting implications for human welfare is one such dimension. This thesis presents studies on welfare implications from hypothetical future policies which improve the state of the marine environment. The method for these studies is economic valuation. The studied scenarios concern eutrophication in the Baltic Sea (including the Kattegat) and oil spill risk from shipping in the Lofoten-Vesterålen area in the Arctic Barents Sea. The thesis shows that the economic benefits from undertaking policies to improve or protect the marine environment in these cases are substantial and exceed the costs of taking measures. In addition to providing new monetary estimates, the thesis also provides new insights concerning 1) what type of scenario to use when valuing an environmental improvement and 2) whether there may exist trade-offs between precision in estimates and the level of ambition with respect to survey instrument complexity and econometric models when conducting valuation studies. The findings suggest an end of an era for studies in which the environmental change is unspecified or based on a single environmental indicator while the actual consequences of the suggested measures are more multifaceted. In contrast, relevant scenarios to study are well-specified and holistic. The thesis further reveals that it might not always be worth the effort to go for the most advanced scenario presentation or statistically best-fitting model specifications. This is something that needs to be further discussed among practitioners in order to allocate valuation resources wisely and not waste resources on unnecessarily elegant valuation studies. / <p>QC 20161011</p>

Les prairies permanentes peuvent fournir une grande diversité de services écosystémiques. Elles se trouvent dans des conditions contrastées en termes de gestion et de climat en Europe. Cette diversité de conditions induit une grande variété de types de prairies différant par leur végétation et leur fourniture en services écosystémiques. Certains travaux suggèrent que le fonctionnement des écosystèmes prairiaux peut être directement relié à des critères de diversité fonctionnelle végétale. Ces critères, qui pourraient être utilisés pour évaluer les services écosystémiques, sont influencés par la gestion et le climat. L'objectif de ce doctorat est d'évaluer les effets de la gestion et du climat sur la diversité fonctionnelle végétale liée à des services écosystémiques des prairies permanentes. La première étape a consisté à sélectionner 29 critères de diversité fonctionnelles liés à 8 services écosystémiques (quantité de fourrage, qualité du fourrage, stabilité de la production de fourrage, conservation de la biodiversité, pollinisation, la séquestration du carbone, résistance à la sécheresse et fertilité azotée). Cette sélection a été faite à partir d'interviews d'experts et d'une revue de la littérature. La deuxième étape a consisté à évaluer différentes inexactitudes dans le calcul des 29 critères de diversité fonctionnelle à partir de bases de traits fonctionnels et différents jeux de relevés botaniques. La troisième étape a consisté à évaluer les critères de diversité fonctionnelle à partir des données de gestion et de climat, en utilisant notamment la technique mathématique des forêts de Breiman. Les résultats montrent que les variables climatiques ont généralement plus d'effet sur la diversité fonctionnelle que celles de gestion. En outre, pour certaines conditions climatiques, la gestion n'affecte pas certains critères de diversité fonctionnelle. Parmi les 29 critères de diversité fonctionnelle, seulement 8 critères avaient plus de 40% de leur variance expliquée par la gestion et le climat / Permanent grasslands can provide a large diversity of ecosystem services. They are found in contrasted conditions in terms of management and climate in Europe. These conditions induce a wide variety of grassland types that differ in their vegetation and are expected to differ with respect to the provision of ecosystem services. Because ecosystem functioning in grassland has been shown to be linked to plant functional diversity criteria, we put forward that these functional diversity criteria can be used to evaluate the provision of ecosystem services. These criteria are influenced by the management and the climate. The overall objective of this PhD program is to assess the effects of management and climate on the plant functional diversity related to ecosystem services of permanent grasslands. The first step of the PhD program was to select 29 functional diversity criteria related to 8 ecosystem services (quantity of forage, forage quality, stability of the forage production, biodiversity conservation, pollination carbon sequestration, dryness resistance and nitrogen fertility). This selection was made using experts' interview and literature survey. The second step was to evaluate inaccuracies in the calculation of the 29 functional diversity criteria from functional trait databases and different sets of botanical surveys. The third step was to estimate the functional diversity criteria from management and climate data using "Random Forests" methodology. The results show that the climatic variables had generally more effect on the functional diversity than the management ones. Furthermore, for some climatic conditions, the management does not affect some functional diversity criteria. Among the 29 functional diversity criteria, only 8 have more than 40 % of their variance explained by the management and climate variables

Sistemas de testes biológicos com espécies representativas têm sido utilizados para avaliar os efeitos causados por substâncias tóxicas no meio aquático. Os bioensaios contam com protocolos definidos, porém os organismos estão isolados de seu meio. O objetivo deste trabalho é desenvolver um sistema de testes capaz de avaliar os efeitos adversos, não apenas sobre uma única espécie, mas sobre um ecossistema. Para esta finalidade foi construído em laboratório um ecossistema aquático microbiano experimental capaz de gerar uma comunidade microbiológica e reproduzir em escala reduzida os componentes de um ecossistema natural, formando uma estrutura ecológica. Dois grupos morfológicos foram observados em sequência ecológica na medida em que as condições do meio eram alteradas. Curvas de dinâmicas de crescimento indicaram comportamento típico para o grupo de protozoários ciliados e apresentaram crescimento logarítmico em torno do quarto dia de aeração. Inibição no crescimento fora observada quando concentrações de 12,28 mg/l de cobre (3,12 ppm) e 2,5 ml/l de inseticida DDVP 20 são introduzidos nos sistemas. Não foi observada dinâmica típica para o grupo de bactérias filamentosas. Para análise dos resultados foi aplicado teste estatístico de análise de variância. O método não permitiu o estudo de relações ecológicas que se estabelecem, mas fornece informações sobre aspectos teóricos da ecologia referentes ao funcionamento dos ecossistemas e seus atributos como a capacidade de auto-organização e o processo de sucessão ecológica. Para maior precisão do método, sugere-se estudo da composição da comunidade incluindo métodos de biologia molecular, alongamento do período do experimento e aplicação de modelos populacionais. / Biological testing systems with representative species have been used to assess the effects caused by toxic substances in the aquatic environment. Bioassays rely on defined protocols, but organisms are isolated from their environment. The objective of this work is to develop a test system capable of evaluating adverse effects, not only on a single species, but on an ecosystem. For this purpose an experimental microbial aquatic ecosystem was built in the laboratory capable of generating a microbiological community and reproducing the components of a natural ecosystem in a reduced scale, forming an ecological structure. Two morphological groups were observed in ecological sequence as the conditions of the environment were altered. Growth dynamics curves indicated typical behavior for the group of ciliate protozoa and presented logarithmic growth around the fourth day of aeration. Growth inhibition was observed when concentrations of 12.28 mg / l copper (3.12 ppm) and 2.5 ml / l DDVP 20 insecticide are introduced into the systems. No typical dynamics were observed for the group of filamentous bacteria. Statistical analysis of variance was applied to analyze the results. The method did not allow the study of established ecological relations, but provides information on the theoretical aspects of ecology related to the functioning of ecosystems and their attributes such as the capacity of self-organization and ecological succession process. For better precision of the method, we suggest a study of community composition including methods of molecular biology, elongation of the experiment period and application of population models.

The ecosystem services approach has increased throughout the years, becoming a powerful tool for environmental planning as well as guideline for resources management and decision-making. Changes in land use/cover are the main human-driven impact over natural ecosystems, which implies directly in ecosystem services provisioning capacity and the ability to sustain those benefits. Water resources are strongly related to human well-being and survival, as one of the most valuable benefits humans acquire from nature. In this regard, landscapes suffering from extreme or vast changes in land use/cover represent threats over water resources, as is the case for Brazilian Cerrado savannas. The prediction of impacts of land cover exchanges over water-related ecosystem services may become one way to avoid its loss, diminishing uncertainties in decision making of land uses. In this sense, our work aimed the measurement and recognition of thresholds that indicates changes in the availability of seven essential water-related ecosystem services, within Cerrado landscapes of São Paulo State, that are facing the conversion of native forests into eucalyptus plantations. We analyzed water resources at 11 low order catchments which comprised a gradient of forested savanna and eucalyptus plantations. Stream water quality data were obtained for 13 physical-chemical-biological parameters, previously known as indicators for seven water-related ecosystem services. Results highlight the importance of monitoring Turbidity, pH, electric conductivity as indicators of services provision. Best potential gains of the seven services occurred above 45% of natural forest coverage. Landscapes with less than 20% of forest tend to become too unsustainable / A abordagem dos serviços ecossistêmicos aumentou ao longo dos anos, tornando-se uma ferramenta poderosa para o planejamento ambiental, guiando a tomada de decisão sobre o manejo de recursos naturais. Mudanças no uso/cobertura da terra são os principais impactos sobre os ecossistemas naturais, o que implica diretamente na provisão de serviços, e na capacidade do ambiente de sustentar esses benefícios. A água fornece diversos serviços ecossistêmicos hídricos, vitais para a sobrevivência humana. Então, neste contexto, paisagens submetidas a vastas mudanças de uso e cobertura representam uma séria ameaça aos serviços hídricos, como é o caso das áreas em domínio de Cerrado brasileiro. Prever e valorar as conseqüências da conversão de áreas naturais para usos da terra sobre os serviços hídricos pode se tornar uma forma de evitar sua perda e diminuir as incertezas nos processos de tomada de decisão territorial. Com esse propósito, objetivamos mensurar e definir limiares em relação às mudanças na disponibilidade de sete serviços essenciais de água em paisagens savânicas do Estado de São Paulo que sofreram conversão de florestas nativas para reflorestamentos. Analisamos recursos hídricos de onze bacias hidrográficas de pequena ordem, que compreendem composições de sistemas florestados em contato com florestas plantadas de eucalipto. As amostras de água foram avaliadas por meio de treze parâmetros físico-químico-biológicos, presumidos como indicadores de sete serviços hídricos. Os resultados ressaltaram a importância de Turbidez, pH e condutividade elétrica como elementos indicadores da provisão dos serviços. Os melhores ganhos potenciais na provisão ocorreram a partir de 45% de cobertura florestal. Paisagens com menos do que 20% de florestas naturais tendem a tornarem-se menos sustentáveis para a provisão de todos os serviços somados

As populações de insetos e os serviços ecossistêmicos realizados por esses organismos estão ameaçados por ações antrópicas, devido à conversão de habitats naturais em paisagens agriculturáveis extensa e/ou urbanizadas. Essas modificações geradas nas paisagens naturais criaram novos cenários e aumentou os desafios de investigar como o arranjo espacial do uso do solo pode afetar os processos ecológicos. Apesar do aumento do número de estudos com esse foco, ainda são escassas as avaliações na região tropical que analisam os efeitos das mudanças da paisagem sobre os polinizadores e a seus serviços. Assim, a fim de prover mais dados que possam contribuir para o entendimento das questões acima, este estudo foi estruturado em três capítulos com os seguintes objetivos: (1) investigar o papel das abelhas na produção de sementes e qualidade do óleo do girassol; (2) avaliar os efeitos de diferentes proporções da heterogeneidade espacial e de cobertura florestal na comunidade de insetos que visitam o girassol, e; (3) avaliar a provisão do serviço de polinização nessa cultura. Para isso, o primeiro capítulo foi realizado na Escola Superior de Agricultura \"Luiz de Queiroz\" - ESALQ/USP, Piracicaba, e os experimentos dos capítulos subsequentes foram conduzidos em 12 paisagens com gradiente de heterogeneidade espacial e cobertura florestal de Mata Atlântica, no Corredor Cantareira-Mantiqueira, Estado de São Paulo, Brasil. Este estudo mostrou a visitação de abelhas em girassóis híbridos aumentou o peso dos aquênios em 91%, os níveis de vitamina E em 45% e os ácidos graxos insaturados em 0,3%, quando comparados a flores isoladas desses polinizadores. Além disso, estimou-se que, devido aos serviços de polinização fornecidos pelas abelhas, o produtor praticamente duplica o valor de venda dos aquênios por hectare de área cultivada. Em relação aos experimentos conduzidos nas 12 paisagens da Mata Atlântica, foram amostrados 2.181 indivíduos de 130 espécies de insetos, pertencentes a 40 famílias de seis ordens. As abelhas foram os visitantes florais mais abundantes (77,2%) e com maior riqueza (36,9%) dentre os visitantes florais. Apis mellifera dominou a comunidade de insetos visitantes, seguida por Trigona spinipes. Essas espécies são consideradas \"super-generalistas\" quanto às suas preferências florais e importantes polinizadores em áreas degradadas, já que suas populações se mantêm em paisagens mais simplificadas e desfavoráveis a outros polinizadores. Isso pode explicar a relação negativa entre a proporção de floresta e a riqueza de insetos que visitaram os girassóis. A heterogeneidade espacial não teve efeito significativo nos índices de diversidade. No entanto, é necessário cuidado ao interpretar esses dados e levar em consideração a qualidade dos habitats naturais da paisagem circundantes aos girassóis e os traços comportamentais e ecológicos de cada espécie amostrada. Neste estudo, ficou evidente que, apesar de A. mellifera contribuir para o incremento da produtividade do girassol, o serviço de polinização realizado por outros insetos foi mais eficiente e efetivo, uma vez que influenciou positivamente no aumento do número e peso dos aquênios por capítulo, na quantidade de óleo extraído das sementes e no nível de gama- tocoferol contido no óleo. Além disso, houve também a diminuição no teor de ácidos graxos saturados. Como seu consumo aumenta a concentração de colesterol no sangue humano, a melhora da composição nutricional do óleo de girassol foi auxiliada pela ação de polinizadores. Assim, este estudo destacou o importante papel dos polinizadores para a segurança alimentar humana e a relação entre características da paisagem e o serviço de polinização, fornecendo dados básicos úteis para estratégias políticas que podem auxiliar na proteção dos polinizadores. / Insect populations and ecosystem services performed by these organisms are threatened by anthropogenic actions, such as the conversion of natural habitats into extensive agricultural and/or urbanized areas. These changes in natural landscapes have created new scenarios and increased the challenges of investigating the effect of spatial arrangement of land use in ecological processes. Despite the increasing number of studies focusing on this topic, evaluations in tropical region that analyze the effects of landscape changes on pollinators and their provision of pollination services are still scarce. Thus, in order to provide more data that address the aforementioned issues, this study was structured into three chapters, with the following aims: (1) to investigate the role of bees in seed production and sunflower oil quality; (2) to evaluate the effects of spatial heterogeneity and forest cover on sunflower-visiting insect community, and; (3) to evaluate the provision of pollination service in sunflowers. To achieve these goals, the experiments were carried out at the \"Luiz de Queiroz\" College of Agriculture - ESALQ/USP, Piracicaba, and in 12 landscapes across gradients of spatial heterogeneity and Atlantic Rainforest cover, in the Cantareira-Mantiqueira Corridor region, São Paulo State, Brazil. This study showed that bee visitation in hybrid sunflowers increased the achenes weight by 91%, the levels of vitamin E by 45% and unsaturated fatty acids by 0.3%. Furthermore, it was estimated that due to the pollination services provided by the bees, the grower of the sunflower hybrid used in this study doubles the sales value of achenes per hectare of cultivated area. In relation to the experiments conducted in the 12 Atlantic Rainforest landscapes, 2,181 individuals belonging to 130 insect species of 40 families (six orders) were sampled. Bees were the most abundant (77.2%) and the richest (36.9%) sunflower visitors. Apis mellifera dominated sunflower-visitor communities, followed by Trigona spinipes. These species are traditionally considered \"super generalists\" in relation to their floral preferences and important pollinators in degraded areas, since their populations remain in simplified landscapes that are unsuitable to other pollinators. It could explain the negative relationship between the forest proportion and the richness of sunflower-visiting insect community. Spatial heterogeneity had no significant effect on the diversity indexes. However, it is necessary to interpret these data with caution and to take in account the quality of the natural habitats surrounding the sunflowers and the behavioral and ecological traits of each insect species. Although A. mellifera contributed to increase sunflower productivity, the pollination services performed by other insect taxa were more efficient and effective, as they contributed to increase the number and weight of achenes per sunflower head, the quantity of oil extracted from seeds and the gamma-tocopherol oil concentration. In addition, there was a decrease in levels of saturated fatty acids. Since their consumption increases the concentration of cholesterol in human blood, the pollinators had an important role in the improvement of the nutritional composition of sunflower oil. Thus, this study highlighted the important role of pollinators for human food security and the relationship between surrounding landscapes and pollination service, providing useful baseline figures to policy strategies that can help to safeguard pollinators.

Sous les effets combinés de la surexploitation des ressources marines et du changement climatique la mer Méditerranée se transforme progressivement en un point chaud du changement global. En dépit d’un grand nombre de modèles développés localement ou régionalement en mer Méditerranée, aucun ne s’est encore attelé aux modifications d'assemblages d’espèces à l’échelle du bassin avec une modélisation intégrée des écosystèmes de la physique jusqu’aux prédateurs et représentant explicitement les dimensions à la fois multi-spécifique, spatiale, et trophique. Ces travaux de thèse présentent donc un triple enjeu : (i) mettre en œuvre une telle modélisation de la richesse spécifique en Méditerranée basée sur les traits de vie et représentant l'intégralité du cycle de vie d’espèces en interaction ; (ii) projeter les conséquences des changements physiques et biogéochimiques induits par le changement climatique sur la distribution spatiale des espèces et sur la structure et le fonctionnement trophique de l'écosystème méditerranéen ; (iii) explorer des scénarios de gestion des pêches visant à reconstituer certains stocks d'intérêts commerciaux dans un contexte de changement climatique. Pour répondre à ces enjeux, un modèle end-to-end, OSMOSE-MED, s’appuyant sur le couplage d’un modèle de hauts niveaux trophiques OSMOSE à des modèles de physique et de biogéochimie NEMOMED12 et ECO3M-S, a été développé. Avec cent espèces modélisées, représentant près de 95 % des captures effectuées en Méditerranée, il s’agit du premier modèle trophique de ce type intégrant une aussi grande richesse spécifique, sur une échelle spatiale aussi vaste (la mer Méditerranée dans son ensemble) et à fine résolution (20x20 km²). Selon le scénario d'émissions de gaz à effet de serre RCP8.5, les projections réalisées avec le modèle OSMOSE-MED mettent en évidence une augmentation globale de la biomasse et des captures, respectivement de 22% et 7% d'ici la fin du siècle. Ces augmentations masquent néanmoins de grandes disparités géographiques. Le bassin oriental se démarque par une augmentation globale de la biomasse associée aux espèces exotiques. Au regard des captures, le modèle prévoit des augmentations dans le bassin oriental et une diminution importante dans la partie occidentale. Un changement de la composition spécifique des captures pourrait apparaître au cours du 21ème siècle avec l'apparition d'espèces gagnantes (e.g. anchois) et perdantes (e.g. merlu). Les espèces gagnantes seraient principalement les espèces de petits pélagiques, thermophiles et/ou exotiques, de plus petites tailles et de plus bas niveaux trophiques tandis que les espèces perdantes seraient généralement les grands démersaux et pélagiques, pouvant pâtir d'un décalage spatial avec leurs proies potentielles à la suite d'une contraction ou d'un déplacement de leur aire de répartition géographique. Dans ce contexte, les projections de scénarios de gestion des pêches mettent en évidence les avantages d'une plus grande sélectivité ou d'une réduction de la mortalité par pêche pour reconstituer certains stocks d'intérêts commerciaux, en particulier parmi les organismes appartenant au groupe des démersaux, benthiques et grands pélagiques. Une réduction de la mortalité par pêche pourrait en outre inverser les tendances projetées à la baisse de la biomasse et des captures totales en Méditerrannée occidentale. / Under the combined effects of overexploitation of marine resources and climate change the Mediterranean Sea is gradually becoming a hotspot of global change. Despite a large number of models developed locally or regionally in the Mediterranean Sea, no previous studies have addressed changes in species assemblages at the basin scale with an integrated ecosystem modelling from physics to predators and explicitly representing the multi-species, spatial, and trophic dimensions. This thesis work presents a threefold challenge: (i) implementing such a model of the species richness in the Mediterranean Sea based on life history traits and representing the entire life cycle of interacting species; (ii) projecting the consequences of physical and biogeochemical changes induced by climate change on the spatial distribution of species and on the structure and trophic functioning of the Mediterranean ecosystem; (iii) exploring fisheries management scenarios aiming at rebuilding some stocks of commercial interest in a climate change context. To address these challenges, an end-to-end model, OSMOSE-MED, based on the coupling of a high trophic level OSMOSE model with NEMOMED12 and ECO3M-S physical and biogeochemical models, has been developed. With 100 modelled species, representing nearly 95% of the catches made in the Mediterranean Sea, it is the first trophic model of this type to integrate such a large diversity of species, on such a large spatial scale (the Mediterranean Sea as a whole) and at fine resolution (20x20 km²). According to the greenhouse gas emissions scenario RCP8.5, projections made with the OSMOSE-MED model show an overall increase in biomass and catches of 22% and 7% respectively by the end of the century. However, these increases mask large geographical disparities. The eastern basin is characterized by an overall increase in biomass associated with exotic species. With regard to catches, the model projects increase in the eastern basin and a significant decrease in the western part. A change in the species composition of catches could appear during the 21st century with winner (e.g. anchovy) and loser (e.g. hake) species. Winner species would mainly belong to the small pelagics group, are thermophilic and/or exotic, of smaller sizes and of low trophic level while loser species are generally large-sized, some of them of great commercial interest, and could suffer from a spatial mismatch with potential prey subsequent to a contraction or shift of their geographic range. Fisheries management scenario projections highlight the benefits of greater selectivity or reduced fishing mortality for the recovery of certain stocks of commercial interest, particularly among organisms belonging to the demersal, benthic and large pelagic groups. A reduction in fishing mortality could also reverse the projected decline in biomass and total catches in the Western Mediterranean.

The UNFCCC initiated mechanism Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) is an important policy instrument for combating climate change, using payments to create economic incentives for developing countries to preserve their forests. However, there is a need for closer scrutiny of whether the mechanism is able to generate its intended outputs and outcomes. The study assessed REDD+ productivity performance in collaborative governance using an instrumental case study of a Collaborative Governance Regime (CGR), the CarBi project in Vietnam. The assessment was based on Emerson and Nabatchi’s productivity performance matrix encompassing three units of analysis - the Participant Organisations, the CGR and the Target Goals. The study was conducted as a Minor Field Study (MFS) using in-depth interviews, complemented with official documents. The findings showed that progress was made in achieving target goals such as forest restoration and enhanced biodiversity, but that REDD+ was not adapted to suit the CGR’s need for stable payments and was not financially feasible to implement in a conservation focused project. Instead, outputs and outcomes were sustained as a result of the transition to the national Payment for Forest Ecosystem Services (PFES). However, the REDD+ safeguards, supporting the inclusion of local communities and indigenous peoples, were lost in the transition and PFES reliance on funding from hydropower dams posed both environmental and social challenges to CGR sustainability.

Dans les territoires de montagne en Europe, les paysages évoluent sous l’effet d’une double dynamique : l’augmentation du couvert forestier et l’intensification des paysages agricoles. A partir d’un cas d’étude, le Mont Lozère, nous montrons comment ces deux dynamiques peuvent rentrer en tension, en explorant la question des choix sociaux liés aux dynamiques paysagères. Nous développons dans cette thèse un cadre conceptuel original, qui associe le concept de service écosystémique avec celui de l’état de référence, que nous avons mis en oeuvre par une démarche compréhensive et un dispositif de recherche-action. A travers l’étude des représentations, nous avons mis à jour un glissement de l’état de référence au sein des paysages agricoles, perçu différemment par les acteurs. Nous avons ensuite révélé les mécanismes sous-jacents aux choix liés aux dynamiques des paysages agricoles, ce qui nous a permis d’identifier un besoin de concertation autour de l’état de référence. Nous y avons répondu par une proposition concrète à travers un jeu de rôles, destiné à mettre les acteurs en situation d’apprentissages et à les accompagner vers des choix plus concertés. Notre contribution porte à la fois sur la question de la conciliation de différents objectifs dans les aires protégées, le rôle de l’état de référence dans la gouvernance des paysages et la plus-value scientifique et opérationnelle du concept de service écosystémique. / In mountain areas in Europe, landscapes evolve under the effects of the dual dynamics of both an increase of forest cover and the intensification of farming landscapes. Based on a case study, on the Mont Lozère we show how these two dynamics can be caught in tension by studying the question of the social choices linked to such landscape dynamics. In this thesis, we develop an original conceptual framework combining the concepts of ecosystem services and baseline references into a comprehensive and a research-action approach. The analysis of representations revealed a shifting baseline on the perception of farming landscapes, which are diversely perceived by stakeholders. We then describe the mechanisms underlying the choices related to farming landscape dynamics, and identify the need for dialogue around this baseline. We respond to this need with a proposition from role playing games that may help foster social learning and encourage more concerted choices. Our contribution addresses both the question of reconciliating different objectives in protected areas, the role of the baseline in landscape governance and the scientific and operational added-value of the concept of ecosystem services.

Notre recherche se situe au cœur de la problématique liée à la ville durable. Le contexte actuel d'amélioration de l'efficacité de la gestion des services publics, et notamment des services publics locaux, va soulever des questions relatives à la qualité ainsi qu'à la performance de ces services publics. D'autre part, le management de l'eau, de par les problématiques de développement territorial et durable, d'Agenda 21, associé à la question de raréfaction de la ressource « eau », représente l'un des enjeux majeurs auxquels font face les managers des collectivités territoriales. Cette recherche s'intéresse dans son ensemble à la gouvernance de l'eau comme étant un élément pouvant être considéré comme un levier dans le cadre du développement d'un territoire. En nous situant au cœur d'un écosystème urbain « global », nous avons choisi de nous intéresser à l'un des sous écosystèmes le composant, celui relatif à l'eau. Nous focalisons notre recherche sur la dimension relative à la gouvernance du service public de distribution d'eau potable, qui compose ce « sous écosystème ». A travers notre étude nous cherchons donc à déterminer s'il serait ou non possible de caractériser un écosystème relatif à la gouvernance d'un service public de distribution d'eau potable, pouvant conduire à une meilleure efficacité managériale au niveau de la coordination des parties prenantes et des processus décisionnels, et jouant un rôle moteur du point de vue du management territorial. Nous nous concentrons sur l'exemple de la distribution d'eau potable au sein des départements des Bouches-du-Rhône et de l'Hérault. / Our research is in the core of the sustainable city issues. The current context of improving management efficiency of public services, including local utilities, will raise issues relating to the quality and performance of these utilities. On the other hand, water management, through the issues of sustainable territorial development, agenda 21, associated with the question of the water resource scarcity, is one of the major challenges facing managers of local authorities. This research deals with the whole water governance as an element which can be considered as a lever in a territory development. By taking position in the core of an urban comprehensive ecosystem, we aim to deal with one of the sub-ecosystems componements, the one related to water. We focus our research on all aspects of water distribution public service governance, making up this "sub ecosystem". Through our study, we will therefore seek to determine whether or not would be possible to characterize an ecosystem on the governance of a public drinking water supply, which can lead to better managerial efficiency with the coordination of stakeholders and decision-makers, and playing a leading role in terms of territorial management. Our concern will be the example of drinking water distribution within the Bouches-du-Rhone and Herault areas.

Entrepreneurship and start-ups are important factors for economic growth and development. As the surrounding innovation ecosystem is becoming increasingly complex, it gets more difficult for entrepreneurs to find the right path. Incubators are important when it comes to facilitating and supporting new ventures. In this research, we conducted 19 semi-structured interviews of which five were held with public incubators, four with private incubators, nine with incubatees and one with Vinnova (a government authority that plays a huge part within the existence of public incubators) in order to gain an understanding of the interplay of the incubation process and the entrepreneurial process. As for analyzing the collected data we used a thematic analysis with an inductive approach. Throughout the coding process, we extracted the following three main topics: role of an incubator, incubation process and interplay. However, a distinction between public and private incubators was approved as applicable that determines the incubators’ purpose, objectives and operations. Our findings suggest that incubators play an important role in supporting and guiding the start-ups by transferring knowledge and asking the right questions as a fundament for the further entrepreneurial process. Continuous communication and expectation management are shown as crucial throughout the interplay of the two processes. Lastly, the disconnection from the incubatees should be done carefully, e.g. through a non-proactive aftercare.