Francisella tularensis is the causative agent of the life-threatening disease tularemia. The Centers for Disease Control considers F. tularensis among the most likely agents of biowarfare due to its high mortality rate, ease of aerosol transmission, and low infectious dose. A fundamental aspect of tularemia pathogenesis is the overwhelming accumulation of neutrophils in the lung that are incapable of bacterial clearance and furthermore injurious to the host tissue, as neutrophilia exacerbates disease and blockade of neutrophil influx into the lungs favors host survival. We hypothesized that the pathologic accretion of neutrophils may be the result of decreased neutrophil death and/or decreased clearance by macrophages. Our lab recently demonstrated that F. tularensis delays neutrophil apoptosis by at least 48 hours to preserve its replicative niche, but the mechanism by which this occurs was poorly defined. Here, we investigate alterations in neutrophil apoptosis and survival signaling at the molecular level and find that, in addition to effects on neutrophil transcription, F. tularensis also modulates protein abundance, activity, and subcellular localization. Specifically, we report that F. tularensis preserves mitochondrial integrity by inhibiting the pro-apoptotic proteins Bid and Bax as well as maintaining expression of the pro-survival factors XIAP and calpastatin. Moreover, we found that infection diminishes the ability of R-roscovitine to induce apoptosis, suggesting bacterial modulation of CDK-mediated survival signaling. Following apoptosis, effete neutrophils are rapidly cleared by macrophages in a process termed efferocytosis to avoid neutrophil progression to secondary necrosis and consequent host tissue damage. We demonstrate for the first time that neutrophils laden with F. tularensis are readily consumed by macrophages and release their infectious cargo into the macrophage cytoplasm. The engulfing cell is unable to eradicate the infection and extensive bacterial replication ensues. Intriguingly, we found that unlike other pathogens, covert infection of macrophages by F. tularensis triggers an inflammatory cytokine response that is highly similar to that of directly infected cells, suggesting that efferocytosis is not an essential virulence mechanism for this bacterium. Together, these studies significantly advance our understanding of fundamental F. tularensis virulence mechanisms and disease pathophysiology as well as shed light on other inflammatory disorders characterized by dysregulated neutrophil turnover and clearance.

Glioblastoma is the most common and aggressive type of adult brain tumour. It is currently incurable and requires more effective treatments. Tissue transglutaminase 2 (TGM2) has previously been suggested to have a role in glioblastoma. Previous studies focused on TGM2 expression and inhibition in glioblastoma cells. Here we were interested in TGM2 expression in glioblastoma-associated microglia/macrophages and in identifying the role it plays in the tumor microenvironment. Based on data from bioinformatics, cell culture experiments, immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence on mouse samples and human samples, we have shown that glioblastoma-associated microglia/macrophages are the major source of TGM2 in the tumor microenvironment. We also identified a novel role for TGM2 in efferocytosis in glioblastoma; this suggests a role for TGM2 in the maintenance of an immunosuppressive environment in this cancer. With this, we hope that further studies will be designed to evaluate the use of TGM2 antagonists as therapeutic agents for glioblastoma.

A fagocitose de células apoptóticas, também denominada eferocitose, é um processo dinâmico e de fundamental importância para homeostase dos tecidos após uma injúria. Estudos demonstraram previamente que a fagocitose de células apoptóticas promove a síntese de mediadores anti-inflamatórios como PGE2, TGF-? e IL-10, podendo resultar num microambiente supressor e aumento da susceptibilidade do hospedeiro contra agentes infecciosos. Entretanto, a fagocitose de células apoptóticas infectadas por células dendríticas promove a geração não apenas de citocinas anti-inflamatórias como TGF-?, mas também de IL-6 e IL-23, levando a um efeito imunoestimulador, a diferenciação de células Th17. A atuação da PGE2 na imunidade adaptativa vem sendo investigada quanto à diferenciação e ativação de linfócitos Th1, Treg e Th17. Nossos resultados demonstram que a fagocitose de células apoptóticas infectadas com E. coli promove a ativação e migração de células dendríticas, assim como a produção de citocinas pró- e anti-inflamatórias e altos níveis de PGE2. No entanto, diferente da hipótese inicial, a presença de altas concentrações de PGE2 inibe drasticamente a diferenciação de células Th17 no contexto de fagocitose de células apoptóticas infectadas com E. coli por células dendríticas, in vitro. O tratamento de linfócitos T CD4+naive com antagonistas e agonistas de EP2/EP4 demonstram que o efeito supressor de PGE2 é mediado primordialmente pelo receptor EP4. Por fim, nossos resultados in vivo comprovam os resultados obtidos in vitro, demonstrando o papel supressor de PGE2 na diferenciação de células Th17 no contexto de fagocitose de células apoptóticas infectadas em modelo de infecção pulmonar. / The phagocytosis of apoptotic cells, also called efferocytosis, is a dynamic process critical for tissue homeostasis after injury. We and other groups previously have shown that phagocytosis of apoptotic cells promotes the synthesis of anti-inflammatory mediators such as PGE2, TGF-? and IL-10, that may result in the suppression of host defense against microorganisms. However, an elegant study using infected apoptotic cells showed that phagocytosis of these cells promote not only the generation of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as TGF-? but also IL-6 and IL-23, resulting in an immunostimulatory effect, the differentiation of Th17 cells. The role of PGE2 in adaptive immunity has been investigated regarding differentiation and activation of Th1, Th17 and Treg. Our results demonstrate that engulfment of E.coli infected apoptotic cells promotes the activation and migration of dendritic cells as well as production of pro and anti-inflammatory cytokines together with high levels of PGE2. However, differing from our hypothesis, high levels of PGE2 inhibits drastically the differentiation of Th17 cells on the context of engulfment of E.coli infected apoptotic cells by dendritic cells in vitro. The treatment of T CD4+naive cells with antagonist or agonists of EP2/EP4 receptors demonstrates the suppressor effect is mainly mediated by EP4 receptor. Finally, the instillation of E.coli infected apoptotic cells in E.coli infected animals resulted on modest Th17 increase but treatment with cox inhibitor increased Th17 cell differentiation. Therefore, our in vivo results prove the in vitro results.

A fagocitose de células apoptóticas, também denominada eferocitose, é um processo dinâmico e de fundamental importância para homeostase dos tecidos após uma injúria. Estudos demonstraram previamente que a fagocitose de células apoptóticas promove a síntese de mediadores anti-inflamatórios como PGE2, TGF-? e IL-10, podendo resultar num microambiente supressor e aumento da susceptibilidade do hospedeiro contra agentes infecciosos. Entretanto, a fagocitose de células apoptóticas infectadas por células dendríticas promove a geração não apenas de citocinas anti-inflamatórias como TGF-?, mas também de IL-6 e IL-23, levando a um efeito imunoestimulador, a diferenciação de células Th17. A atuação da PGE2 na imunidade adaptativa vem sendo investigada quanto à diferenciação e ativação de linfócitos Th1, Treg e Th17. Nossos resultados demonstram que a fagocitose de células apoptóticas infectadas com E. coli promove a ativação e migração de células dendríticas, assim como a produção de citocinas pró- e anti-inflamatórias e altos níveis de PGE2. No entanto, diferente da hipótese inicial, a presença de altas concentrações de PGE2 inibe drasticamente a diferenciação de células Th17 no contexto de fagocitose de células apoptóticas infectadas com E. coli por células dendríticas, in vitro. O tratamento de linfócitos T CD4+naive com antagonistas e agonistas de EP2/EP4 demonstram que o efeito supressor de PGE2 é mediado primordialmente pelo receptor EP4. Por fim, nossos resultados in vivo comprovam os resultados obtidos in vitro, demonstrando o papel supressor de PGE2 na diferenciação de células Th17 no contexto de fagocitose de células apoptóticas infectadas em modelo de infecção pulmonar. / The phagocytosis of apoptotic cells, also called efferocytosis, is a dynamic process critical for tissue homeostasis after injury. We and other groups previously have shown that phagocytosis of apoptotic cells promotes the synthesis of anti-inflammatory mediators such as PGE2, TGF-? and IL-10, that may result in the suppression of host defense against microorganisms. However, an elegant study using infected apoptotic cells showed that phagocytosis of these cells promote not only the generation of anti-inflammatory cytokines such as TGF-? but also IL-6 and IL-23, resulting in an immunostimulatory effect, the differentiation of Th17 cells. The role of PGE2 in adaptive immunity has been investigated regarding differentiation and activation of Th1, Th17 and Treg. Our results demonstrate that engulfment of E.coli infected apoptotic cells promotes the activation and migration of dendritic cells as well as production of pro and anti-inflammatory cytokines together with high levels of PGE2. However, differing from our hypothesis, high levels of PGE2 inhibits drastically the differentiation of Th17 cells on the context of engulfment of E.coli infected apoptotic cells by dendritic cells in vitro. The treatment of T CD4+naive cells with antagonist or agonists of EP2/EP4 receptors demonstrates the suppressor effect is mainly mediated by EP4 receptor. Finally, the instillation of E.coli infected apoptotic cells in E.coli infected animals resulted on modest Th17 increase but treatment with cox inhibitor increased Th17 cell differentiation. Therefore, our in vivo results prove the in vitro results.

L’athérosclérose est une maladie inflammatoire chronique. L’une des caractéristiques des lésions d’athérosclérose est l’accumulation anormale de corps apoptotiques et nécrotiques, due à un défaut d’efferocytose, ceci entraînant la formation du cœur nécrotique. L’évolution de ce cœur nécrotique est également associée à une augmentation de l’inflammation et de la taille des plaques d’athérosclérose, mais aussi dans la survenue de complications telle que la rupture de plaque. Clec9a est un récepteur transmembranaire de type lectine C, majoritairement exprimé par une sous population de cellules dendritiques les DC-CD8α+. Il est capable de reconnaître un ligand spécifiquement exprimé par les corps nécrotiques, l’actine F. L’objectif de notre travail a été de savoir si Clec9a, qui est capable de reconnaître les corps nécrotiques, pouvait être impliqué dans la modulation de l’inflammation observée au cours du développement de l’athérosclérose. Au cours de cette étude, nous avons montré, in vivo partir de deux modèles murins (ApoE-/- et LDLr-/-), que la délétion de Clec9a entraîne une diminution significative de la taille des lésions dans un contexte d’hypercholestérolémie modérée. Cette athéro-protection observée en l’absence de Clec9a, est associée à une augmentation de l’expression de l’IL-10, qui est une interleukine anti-athérogène et anti-inflammatoire. Cet effet athéroprotecteur de l’absence de Clec9a n’est plus observé lorsque l’IL-10 est totalement invalidée. De plus, nous avons montré que l’invalidation de Clec9a spécifiquement dans les DC-CD8α+ entraîne, in vivo, une diminution de l’infiltration des macrophages et des lymphocytes T dans les lésions, ainsi qu’une augmentation de l’expression de l’IL-10, favorisant une diminution de la taille des lésions. La compréhension des mécanismes inflammatoires dans l’athérosclérose constitue un enjeu majeur pour prévenir les risques de complications comme la rupture de plaque ou la thrombose. Ainsi, ce travail met en évidence un nouveau rôle de Clec9a dans la régulation de l’inflammation dans l’athérosclérose et pourrait donc représenter une cible thérapeutique potentielle. / Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease. One of the characteristics of atherosclerotic lesions is the abnormal accumulation of apoptotic and necrotic cells, due to a deficiency of efferocytosis, which leads to the formation of the necrotic heart. The evolution of this necrotic core is also associated with an increase in inflammation and lesions of atherosclerosis, but also in the occurrence of complications such as plaque rupture. Clec9a is a C type lectin receptor, mainly expressed by a subpopulation of dendritic cells, which are the CD8α+ dendritic cells. This receptor is able to recognize a ligand expressed by necrotic cells, the actin F. The aim of our work was to find out if Clec9a, which can sense necrotic cells, could be involved in modulating the inflammation observed during the development of atherosclerosis. In this study, we have shown, in vivo with two mouse models (ApoE - / - and LDLr - / -), that the deletion of Clec9a leads to a significant decrease in the incidence of moderate hypercholesterolemia. This athero-protection observed in the absence of Clec9a, is associated with an increase in the expression of IL-10, which is an anti-atherogenic and anti-inflammatory cytokine. This athero-protective effect of the absence of Clec9a is abolished after total invalidation of IL-10. Furthermore, we report that specific knockdown of Clec9a in CD8α+-DC, in vivo, leads to a decrease in macrophage and lymphocyte infiltration in lesions, as well as an increase in IL-1 expression. 10, which promotes a decrease in lesions size. Understanding of inflammatory mechanisms in atherosclerosis is a major challenge to prevent the risk of complications such as plaque rupture or thrombosis. Thus, this work highlights a new role of Clec9a in the regulation of inflammation in atherosclerosis and could be therefore a potential therapeutic target.

Inflammation is an integral part of the body defense mechanism that occurs in vascularized tissue in response to harmful stimuli that is perceived as being a threat to tissue homeostasis. It is a complex physiological host response that is designed to neutralize and eliminate harmful agents, initiate tissue healing, and orchestrate a return to tissue homeostasis. While inflammation is designed to be an acute event that resolves following the elimination of harmful stimuli and tissue healing, there are instances where inflammation fails to resolve and instead evolves into chronic inflammation. It is now well understood that ongoing inflammation can serve as the underlying cause of many chronic inflammatory diseases, including atherosclerosis. In fact, one of the most pressing issues that is currently faced in the field of inflammation research, one that has also become the focus of numerous ongoing investigations, is how to turn this excessive, unwarranted and undesirable inflammation response off. Once thought to be a passive and simple process, resolution is now understood to be an active and complex process that is orchestrated by various inflammatory mediators, signaling pathways and biophysical processes. The discovery of novel biosynthetic pathways that turn on the pro-resolution signals has lead to a surge in research aimed at taking a closer look at processes that can stimulate the resolution of inflammation. While major advances in the field have resulted in a better understanding of the proactive nature of resolution, many of the mechanisms involved are still unknown. To date, the repertoire of chemokine receptors that participate in macrophage clearance during resolution, for the most part, remain unidentified. Overall, there is a growing appreciation that the discovery of mechanisms involved in the resolution responses can lead to the development of novel therapeutic approaches to resolve many chronic inflammatory diseases. Syndecan-1 (Sdc-1), a member of a family of cell surface proteoglycans, has been previously shown to regulate events relevant to tissue repair and chronic injury responses. Macrophage Sdc-1 expression during inflammation has been reported to be protective in various inflammatory models. Given these observations, we hypothesize that Sdc-1 expression on macrophages is a critical component of an anti-inflammatory, pro resolution program necessary for the successful resolution of inflammatory response. In this dissertation, we report the presence of a unique population of macrophages expressing Sdc-1 that are present within the vascular wall of mice undergoing atherosclerosis. Consistent with previous publications, the presence of Sdc-1 expressing macrophages was found to limit atherosclerosis progression. In addition, Sdc-1 expression on macrophages was associated with anti-inflammatory M2 polarization state and high intrinsic motility. Macrophage Sdc-1 expression was also linked with efferocytosis and enhanced macrophage egress from the site of inflammation to the draining lymphatic network. Moreover, we discovered that the chemokine receptor CXCR4, which was found on Sdc-1 expressing macrophages, was also involved in macrophage egress during inflammation resolution. In summary, while the overall mechanism regulating resolution processes is still unknown, our work has managed to identify two components that are involved in the process: macrophage Sdc-1 and CXCR4. Collectively, these results reinforce the physiological significance of macrophage efferocytosis and macrophage motility as endogenous modulators of the inflammatory response.

La granulomatose avec polyangéite est une vascularite systémique associée à une réaction auto-immune dirigée contre la protéinase 3, une serine protéase du neutrophile. Cette protéine présente un profil particulier d’expression dans le neutrophile, caractérisé notamment par une expression membranaire au cours de l’apoptose. Cette capacité de la protéinase 3 à se lier aux membranes repose sur l’existence de quatre acides amines formant un patch hydrophobe. Cette expression membranaire au cours de l’apoptose, qui dépend de l’existence de ce patch hydrophobe, conduit la protéinase 3 à interagir avec la calréticuline qui est une molécule impliquée dans la reconnaissance des cellules apopotiques par les macrophages. Nous avons démontré que cette interaction conduit la protéinase 3 à modifier le phénotype pro-résolutif des macrophages consécutif à la phagocytose de cellules apoptotiques. Le phénotype pro-inflammatoire résultant de cette expression de la protéinase 3 dépend de la voie de signalisation MyD88 mimant un signal danger. Cette activation des macrophages conduit à la sécrétion de chimiokines (MCP-1, KC, MIP-1α et MIP-1β) impliquées dans le recrutement de cellules exprimant la protéinase 3 participant ainsi au maintient de l’inflammation. Ce microenvironnement induit par les macrophages modifie le rôle immuno-modulateur de la clairance des cellules apoptotiques, influençant notamment l’interaction des cellules T naïves avec les cellules dendritiques plasmacytoïdes. La polarisation T résultante présente une distribution déséquilibrée vers les lymphocytes Th2/Th9 et une diminution de la génération de lymphocytes T régulateurs. La protéinase 3, qui est encodée par un gène de réponse au G-CSF, est de plus capable d’induire le recrutement de cellules sur-exprimant cette protéase capable à son tour de stimuler la sécrétion de G-CSF. La protéinase 3 apparait donc, par sa capacité à corrompre les mécanismes de résolution de l’inflammation et d’amplifier sa propre expression dans les cellules recrutées sur le site inflammatoire, comme un élément clé de la physiopathologie de la granulomatose avec polyangéite. / Granulomatosis with polyangiitis is a systemic vasculitides associated with an autoimmune response directed against proteinase 3 a neutrophil-derived serine protease. This protein presents a very specific pattern of expression in neutrophils, illustrated by its membrane expression during apoptosis. The ability of PR3 to bind membrane is based on the existence of four amino-acids involved in the formation of a hydrophobic patch. The membrane expression during apoptosis, which is dependent of the existence of the hydrophobic patch, leads to an interaction between proteinase 3 and calreticulin, a “eat-me” signal involved in the recognition of apopotic cells by macrophages. As a consequence, we have found that proteinase 3 expressed at the surface of apoptotic cells hampers the normal anti-inflammatory phenotype of macrophages following phagocytosis of apoptotic cells. The pro-inflammatory phenotype resulting from proteinase 3 expressing cells phagocytosis by macrophages is a MyD88 signaling pathway dependant mechanism mimicking an alarmin stimulation. This activation of macrophages through the secretion of chemokines (MCP-1, KC, MIP-1α and MIP-1β) implicated in the recruitment of cells expressing proteinase 3 participate in the maintenance of inflammation. This macrophage-induced microenvironment was also found to impact the immune silencing of apoptotic cells clearance by plasmacytoid dendritic cell-dependant T cell interaction leading to a skewed Th2/Th9 T cell distribution instead of the generation of regulatory T cells. Proteinase 3, which is encoded by a G-CSF responsive gene, was also able to recruit more over expressing proteinase 3 cells by its ability to stimulate G-CSF secretion. Then proteinase 3 through its corruption of inflammation resolving mechanisms and its self-induced over expression appears to be a central key in the physiopathology of granulomatosis with polyangiitis.

La myélopoïèse est finement régulée au niveau métabolique. Les cellules myéloïdes (monocytes et macrophages) sont au centre de nombreuses pathologies. Ma thèse étudie le rôle du métabolisme des cellules myéloïdes dans les pathologies inflammatoires. Je me suis intéressée au métabolisme du cholestérol dans la prolifération anarchique des monocytes (cancérisation) et j’ai étudié des mutations du transporteur ABCA1 (ATP-Binding Cassette A1) impliqué dans l’efflux de cholestérol, qui sont à l’origine d’une prolifération accrue des monocytes, soulignant l’impact du métabolisme lipidique dans la régulation de la prolifération cellulaire. Le métabolisme du glucose est lui aussi impliqué dans la régulation de la myélopoïèse. Nous avons étudié le rôle du transporteur au glucose, Glut-1, dans l’athérosclérose, qui est une pathologie inflammatoire chronique. Dans ce contexte, les CSH et les progéniteurs myéloïdes sur-expriment le transporteur Glut-1, induisant une monocytose, permettant l’accumulation de macrophages dans les lésions. La déficience en Glut-1 prévient la monocytose et le développement des plaques d’athérosclérose. Je me suis intéressée au rôle de la lipase acide lysosomale (LIPA) dans la phagocytose des cellules apoptotiques (efferocytose) par les macrophages, où une grande quantité de cholestérol ingérée doit être dégradée. LIPA en est un acteur central. L’inhibition de cette enzyme provoque un stress oxydatif mitochondrial, et active l’inflammasome NLRP3, contribuant à une inflammation chronique. Cela réduit aussi l’activation des Liver-X-Receptor et induit un défaut d’efferocytose des macrophages, ce qui participe à l’apparition d’une inflammatoire chronique. / Myeloid cells are produced by hematopoiesis, from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), a metabolically fine-tuned process. In chronic inflammatory diseases, an increased amount of monocytes is observed (monocytosis). My thesis focuses on the role of myeloid cells metabolism in chronic inflammatory diseases. We focused on the impact of cholesterol metabolism alterations into the anarchic proliferation of monocytes (carcinogenesis). Novel somatic mutations in the cholesterol efflux transporter ATP-Binding Cassette A1 induce carcinogenesis of monocytes, highlighting the impact of cholesterol efflux pathway in monocyte proliferation. I studied glycolysis in atherosclerosis, a chronic inflammatory disease. HSCs and myeloid progenitors exhibited higher Glut-1 expression in a murine model of atherosclerosis, with an enhanced accumulation of macrophages into lesions. A partial deletion of Glut-1 reduced HSCs and progenitors proliferation, limiting monocytosis and atherosclerotic plaques development. I studied the role of lysosomal acid lipase (LIPA) in the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells (efferocytosis). When a macrophage phagocytized an apoptotic cell, an important amount of cholesterol has to be degraded. LIPA is a key player in this process. When LIPA is inhibited, we observed a reduced production of 25- and 27-hydroxycholesterol, leading to an increased mitochondrial oxidative stress, which activated NLRP3 inflammasome activation and a reduced LXR activation. LIPA inhibition leads to a defective efferocytosis in vitro and in vivo. LIPA enzyme is essential to prevent metabolic inflammation by maintaining effective efferocytosis.

Après un infarctus, les acteurs de l’immunité innée et adaptative contrôlent le remodelage et la fonction cardiaque. Dans un premier travail, nous nous sommes intéressés aux mécanismes moléculaires définissant le rôle des monocytes et des macrophages, composants majeurs de l’immunité innée. En particulier, nous avons analysé le rôle de deux récepteurs MertK (myeloid-epithelial-reproductive receptor tyrosine kinase) et Mfge8 (milk fat globule epidermal growth factor-like factor 8), susceptibles d’être impliqués dans la reconnaissance des débris cellulaires peuplant la zone infarcie. L’invalidation de MertK et Mfge8 in vivo chez la souris augmente l’accumulation des cellules apoptotiques, aggrave la fibrose et accroit la taille de l’infarctus par rapport aux souris contrôles. De plus, l’expression du facteur pro-angiogenique VEGF-A, est significativement réduite 3 jours post-infarctus chez les souris chimères Mertk-/-Mfge8-/- par rapport aux animaux contrôles. Enfin, l’invalidation de l’expression de VEGF-A dans les cellules myéloides augmente la fibrose et la taille de l’infarctus et diminue la fonction cardiaque. Ainsi, la reconnaissance des débris cellulaires par Mertk et Mfge8 promeut la libération de VEGF-A par les monocytes et macrophages et participe à la restauration de la densité capillaire et de la fonction cardiaque post-infarctus. Dans un deuxième travail, nous avons abordé les voies de signalisation intracellulaires sous-tendant les effets d’un acteur majeur de l’immunité adaptative, le lymphocyte B. Après un infarctus, les lymphocytes B libèrent la chimiokine Ccl7, qui en se fixant sur son récepteur CCR2, déclenche une mobilisation des monocytes inflammatoires de la moelle osseuse vers le sang puis leur recrutement délétère dans la zone infarcie. Nous avons notamment montré que des activateurs des lymphocytes B, comme des stimuli inflammatoires, stimulent la libération de Ccl7, en partie en initiant des voies de signalisation intracellulaires dépendantes du micro-RNA (miR)21. L’administration exogène de lymphocytes B déficients pour miR-21 améliore d’ailleurs la fonction et le remodelage cardiaque post-infarctus chez des souris immunodéficientes. miR21 cible le gène suppresseur de tumeur PTEN et ainsi augmente l’expression du facteur de transcription HIF1α. De fait, l’analyse par échocardiographie effectuée 14 jours après l’induction de l’infarctus montre une amélioration de la fonction cardiaque ainsi qu’une diminution de la taille de l’infarctus et de la fibrose interstitielle chez les souris invalidées pour HIF1α spécifiquement dans les lymphocytes B par rapport aux contrôles. Les taux de la chimiokine CCL7 dans le plasma de ces souris sont aussi significativement réduits à J1 et J3 post infarctus ; ainsi que la mobilisation et le recrutement monocytaire. Il apparaît donc que la voie de signalisation impliquant miR21/HIF1α conditionne l’effet délétère des lymphocytes B dans un contexte d’infarctus aigu du myocarde. Ces travaux ont permis de révéler des facteurs majeurs de la régulation fine de la réaction inflammatoire post-ischémique, et de souligner l’efficacité potentielle de stratégies thérapeutiques modulant l’activité des cellules immunitaires dans le décours des pathologies cardiaques. / After a myocardial infarction, the innate and adaptive immunity play a role in post ischaemic remodelling and cardiac function. In a first work, we have been interested in the molecular mechanism of the role of monocytes and macrophages, the major innate immunity components. In particular, it has been analysed the function of, the myeloid-epithelial reproductive protein tyrosine kinase (Mertk) and the milk fat globule epidermal growth factor (Mfge8) and their implication in directing cardiac remodelling by skewing the inflammatory response after myocardial infarction. Compared with wild-type, Mertk-deficient (Mertk−/−), or Mfge8- deficient (Mfge8−/−) animals, Mertk−/−/Mfge8−/− mice displayed greater alteration in cardiac function and remodelling. In parallel, Mertk−/−/Mfge8−/− bone marrow chimeras manifested increased accumulation of apoptotic cells, enhanced fibrotic area, and larger infarct size, as well as reduced angiogenesis and VEFA expression. Combined Mertk and Mfge8 deficiency in myeloid cells either obtained from in vitro differentiation of bone marrow cells or isolated from infarcted hearts altered their capacity of efferocytosis and subsequently blunted vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) release. On the contrary, the recognition of necrotic cells by Mertk and Mfge8 promote VEGFA liberation improving cardiac function and angiogenesis. In the second work, we have focused on intracellular signalling pathway underlying the effects of another important actor of adaptive immunity, the B lymphocytes. After acute myocardial infarction multiple subtypes of inflammatory cells are known to orchestrate post-ischemic cardiac remodelling. In particular, Mature B lymphocytes selectively produce Ccl7 chimiokine and fixed on its CCR2 receptor it is able to induce monocyte mobilization and recruitment to the heart, leading to enhanced tissue injury and deterioration of myocardial function. Many B lymphocytes activators, such as inflammatory stimuli, may promote CCL7 release partially involving an intracellular signalling pathway depending on the micro-RNA miR21. We speculate that endogenous activation of the miR21/HIFα-related pathways balances the effect of B lymphocytes on post-ischemic cardiac remodelling. The treatment with TLR ligands resulted in induction of the microRNA miR-21, which targeted PTEN, leading to subsequent up regulation of HIF1α and HIF2α levels. In Rag1-/- immunodeficient mice with acute MI, we showed that re-supplementation with miR21-/- B lymphocytes restored cardiac repair and function when compared to injection of wild-type B cells. These effects were associated with a reduction in Ly6Chigh monocyte infiltration in the ischemic myocardium as well as with a decrease in infarct size and interstitial fibrosis. This work reveals several factors implicated in regulation of post-ischaemic inflammatory reaction, and underline the potential efficacity of a therapeutic strategy to module the activity of immune cells alongside the cardiovascular diseases.

L’athérosclérose est une maladie dyslipidémique et inflammatoire chronique, définie par l’accumulation de lipides dans l’intima des artères. Les plaques athérosclérotiques ainsi formées peuvent progresser vers un phénotype stable, mais obstructif du flot sanguin, ou vers un phénotype instable, susceptible à la rupture et donc à l’apparition de thrombose. En conséquence, l’athérosclérose est l’une des causes principales des maladies cardiaques ischémiques, comme l’infarctus du myocarde. Les macrophages, pour une grande partie différenciés à partir des monocytes accumulés dans l’intima des vaisseaux artériels, internalisent les lipides oxydés présents dans les athéromes, induisant la formation de cellules spumeuses, un des principaux composants des lésions athérosclérotiques. L’un des récepteurs responsables de l’internalisation des lipides oxydés par les macrophages est le récepteur CD36, qui est non seulement un récepteur important dans l’initiation des lésions, mais également dans leur progression et leur résolution. Il s’agit donc d’une cible potentielle intéressante pour le traitement de l’athérosclérose. Dans des études antérieures, nous avons montré le potentiel anti-athérosclérotique de ligands linéaires du CD36 dérivés des peptides sécrétagogues de l’hormone de croissance, puis de leurs dérivés azapeptidiques. Dans cette étude, des souris déficientes en apolipoprotéine E, soumise à une diète riche en lipides et en cholestérol de 4 à 20 semaines de vie, ont été traitées par une injection sous-cutanée quotidienne de NaCl 0,9%, de MPE-003, utilisé ici comme contrôle positif ayant déjà montré un effet anti athérosclérotique, ou de MPE-298 à une dose de 300 nmol/kg de 12 à 20 semaines de vie, afin d’investiguer le potentiel du MPE-298, un nouvel azapeptide cyclique, dans l’athérosclérose. Le MPE-298 a démontré un effet anti-athérosclérotique, ainsi qu’un effet dans la stabilisation des athéromes. / Atherosclerosis is a chronic dyslipidemia and inflammatory disease, defined by the accumulation of lipids in the intima of arteries. The atherosclerotic plaques then formed can progress either towards a stable but obstructive to the blood flow phenotype, or towards a more unstable phenotype, susceptible to rupture and potentially leading to thrombosis. Because of this, atherosclerosis is one of the principal causes of ischemic cardiovascular diseases, conductive to myocardial infarction. Macrophages, mostly differentiated from monocytes accumulated in the arteries’ intima, can internalize oxidized lipids within atherosclerotic lesions, and transform into foam cells, one of the principal components of atherosclerotic plaque. One of the receptors responsible for the internalization of oxidized lipids by macrophages is the receptor CD36, which is not only important for lesion initiation, but also for progression and resolution. This receptor is a potential target for the treatment of atherosclerosis. In previous studies, we showed the anti-atherosclerotic effect of linear CD36 ligands growth hormone-releasing peptides, and then study the pharmacological effect of their azapeptidic derivatives. In this study, mice deficient in apolipoprotein E, fed a high fat high cholesterol diet from 4 to 20 weeks of age, were treated by daily subcutaneous injection of 0.9% NaCl, MPE-003, used here as a positive control as its anti atherosclerotic effect has already been shown, or MPE-298 from 12 to 20 weeks of age, to investigate the potential of MPE-298, a cyclic azapeptide, in atherosclerosis. MPE-298 showed an anti-atherosclerotic effect, as well as an effect in stabilization of atheroma.