Endurance can be defined as the ability to maintain or to repeat a given force or power output. The sport performance-endurance relationship is a multi-factorial concept. However, evidence indicates that maximum strength is a major component. Conceptually, endurance is a continuum. The literature indicates that (a) maximum strength is moderately to strongly related to endurance capabilities and associated factors, a relationship that is likely stronger for high intensity exercise endurance (HIEE) activities than for low intensity exercise endurance (LIEE); (b) strength training can increase both HIEE and LIEE, the effect being greater for HIEE; (c) the volume of strength training plays a role in endurance adaptation; and (d) mechanical specificity and training program variables also play a role in the degree of adaptation.

Endurance can be defined as the ability to maintain or to repeat a given force or power output. The sport performance-endurance relationship is a multi-factorial concept. However, evidence indicates that maximum strength is a major component. Conceptually, endurance is a continuum. The literature indicates that (a) maximum strength is moderately to strongly related to endurance capabilities and associated factors, a relationship that is likely stronger for high intensity exercise endurance (HIEE) activities than for low intensity exercise endurance (LIEE); (b) strength training can increase both HIEE and LIEE, the effect being greater for HIEE; (c) the volume of strength training plays a role in endurance adaptation; and (d) mechanical specificity and training program variables also play a role in the degree of adaptation..

Self-Control Training (SCT) and Brain Endurance Training (BET) are novel training modalities designed to enhance physical endurance by building fatigue resiliency. Despite their similarities, it has yet to be examined whether combining SCT and BET provides an additive or redundant/overlapping effect on endurance exercise performance. This study investigated the effects of SCT and combined SCT+BET on performance of a maximal exertion isometric resistance endurance task (high plank) and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE). Participants (N = 33) were randomized to engage in 4 weeks (18 training sessions) of SCT (isometric handgrip; n = 13), SCT+BET (10-minute cognitively demanding task, followed by SCT; n = 10), or no-training/control (n = 10). Isometric endurance performance trials were completed at pre-, mid-, and post-training. One-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) models were computed for each of the mid- and post-training trials (controlling for pre-training high-plank performance) to assess effects on performance. Results showed no significant effects of training on high plank performance between groups at mid-training; however, a large and significant effect for SCT compared to control was observed at post-training (p = .044, d = .961). No significant main effects or interaction effects were found for changes in RPE over time (p’s > .05). Findings support the use of SCT as an effective training method for physical endurance performance and suggest that BET may not offer additional performance benefit compared to SCT under the training and testing conditions used in this protocol. Future research should explore potential dose-response effects of SCT on performance and moderators such as trait self-control. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Human Nutrition / Mark D. Haub / Maximizing performance and results in competitive events is something that all athletes strive to achieve. Nutritional strategies have been developed to best optimize the likelihood of success in competitive events. While dietary protein was classically believed to be the key macronutrient in exercise performance, overwhelming evidence now supports the role of maximizing carbohydrate intake and availability in endurance performance. The role of carbohydrate intake prior to, during and after endurance exercise has been heavily studied and relevant literature will be discussed herein. This paper consists of three chapters and a summary related to carbohydrate intake and performance outcomes in endurance sports. While nutritional status surrounding the endurance events is discussed, this paper focuses on the ergogenic and metabolic effects of carbohydrates during the endurance bout. Chapter one serves as a literature review of carbohydrate administration during endurance exercise. Types of carbohydrates, their role as substrates in liver and skeletal muscle during exercise, and their effects on endurance performance are discussed. The role of carbohydrate on central factors of fatigue and motor output also are covered. Chapter two addresses the role of multiple carbohydrate supplements on cycling performance. The role of these supplements on blood glucose, insulin, lactate, and IGFBP-1 also are discussed. Chapter three addresses the effect of nutritional status prior to exercise on the ability of a carbohydrate mouth rinse to impart a performance enhancing effect. There were no treatment effects (p>0.05) of the type carbohydrate ingested, compared with placebo, on selected metabolic and performance outcomes. Likewise, there was no ergogenic effect of mouth rinsing, in the fasted or fed state, in moderately trained endurance cyclists.

Pre-workout(PWO) är idag ett välkänt fenomen som med ökat användande varje år. I denna studie testas preworkout-preparatet Rampage™ som är ett av Sveriges mest använda preparat. Det finns för få studier som testar preworkout-preparat i samband med muskulär uthållighet och vår hypotes är att det är där pre-workout har som störst effekt. Syftet med den här studien är att undersöka hur Rampage™ påverkar muskulär uthållighet hos män i åldern 18 och uppåt. För att undersöka detta har ett experiment med dubbelblind crossover-design skapats, där 13 deltagare efter behandling av antingen placebo eller Rampage™, blivit utsatta för tre set knäböj, tre set armhävningar och tre set sit-ups var. Antalet repetitioner som utfördes användes sedan till statistisk analys och resultatet visade ingen signifikant skillnad mellan grupperna(p=0,858). Det finns några orsaker till varför det kan vara såhär och det finns anledning att fortsätta forska om det här specifikt. Vår hypotes att pre-workout påverkar muskulär uthållighet är fortfarande under prövning. / Pre-workout supplementation is today a well-known phenomenon ever increasing in popularity every year. In this study, we investigate Rampage™; a popular product in Sweden. There’s too few studies that investigate the link between pre-workout and strength training to failure and we believe that is where pre-workout is most effective. The aim of this study is to research Rampage’s™ effects on muscular endurance in male participants above the age group of 18. To do this a double-blind cross-over design has been applied to 13 participants who, unknowingly, either ingest a placebo or the actual pre-workout in order to do three sets of squats, three sets of push-ups and three sets of sit-ups. When they couldn’t perform one more repetition the set was concluded. The number of repetitions was later used for statistical analysis and we found no significance between the groups (p=0,858). There are some reasons this might be the case, and we believe this could be investigated further, although our hypothesis remains unproven.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2001. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: A 5 km cycling time trial (TT) demands high, sustained muscle power output and substantial oxidative and glycolytic energy delivery. The aims of this study were to firstly use the novel approach of using Peak Sustained Power Output (PSPO) as a predictor of cycling performance for variable fixed-workload testing and 5 km time trialing and whether oral creatine supplementation would affect 5 km time trial performance and metabolism. The effect of oral creatine supplementation with 20 g/day for 7 days on 5 km time trial performance and metabolism after a random-variable workload protocol (stochastic test) was investigated in a single-blind placebo controlled study. Thirteen trained male cyclists volunteered for the study that was approved by the University of Stellenbosch Research Ethics Committee. We hypothesized that Cr supplementation would affect time trial performance as well as the appearance of breakdown products of adenine nucleotides in the plasma. Baseline: the subjects' peak power output was measured and they underwent a baseline stochastic test followed immediately by a 5 km time trial (STI) and on a different day, a single 5 km time trial test (Tl) was undertaken. Study 1: In the following week the subjects repeated the stochastic test with 5 km time trial (ST2) and on a different day a 5 km time trial (T2). During T2 blood samples were taken at regular intervals as well as during recovery. A muscle biopsy was taken after T2 in the recovered state. The major performance predictors were the 5-km time trials (TTl and TT2) with a coefficient of variation between the thirteen trained male cyclists of 0.6%. The 5 km time trials in the fatigued state (STI and ST2) had a coefficient of variation of 0.7%. Results: There was a significant difference between 5 km TT performed fresh and 5km TT performed fatigued (P=0.0001). The decrement in time ranged between 1.0 sec to 38.0 sec. The relationship between two different high intensity endurance performance tests: PSPO and 5 km TT (TT mean) had a correlation ofr=-0.79 P<O.OI. The correlation between PSPO and the 5 km TT performed in the fatigued condition (ST mean) was r= -0.60 P<0.05. There was also a relationship between age and PSPO (F 0.73; P<0.05). Age showed a good negative relationship with TT mean (F- 0.71; P<0.05). Mass and PSPO were also correlated (FO.85; P<O.OI). Plasma lactate concentrations were significantly different from rest at all other time points P<O.OOOIup to 20 minutes post-exercise. Hypoxanthine (P<O.OOOI)and urate (P=O.05) concentrations were also significantly different from rest at all other time points. There was a significant change in plasma hypoxanthine concentrations over time (P<0.0001). There was a significant correlation between plasma lactate concentration at time 0 in recovery and % Myosin Heavy Chain (MHC) I (FO.59, P<0.05) and % MHC na (F -0.61, P<0.05). Area under the curve for hypoxanthine showed significant relationships of F -0.53 (P=O.05) and F 0.56 (P<0.05) respectively for %MHC I and %MHC ITa. Study 2 - Supplementation: following T2 the subjects received Cr or placebo powder containing sachets to be ingested 4 times daily for the next week with carbohydrate also provided. Post-supplementation testing: the subjects returned and conducted another variable fixedworkload test with 5 km time trial (ST3) as well as a single 5 km time trial (T3). They once again underwent the same blood sampling routine and had another muscle biopsy in the rested state. The average of ST1 and ST2 was used as the major measure for performance under fatigued conditions and TTmean. Results: there was a significant difference between 5 km TT performed fresh and 5 km TT performed fatigued (P=0.0001). Plasma lactate, hypoxanthine and urate samples were taken at the postloading 5 km time trial (TT3). The levels of these plasma metabolites were compared to the concentrations of those sampled at TT2 and between the creatine and placebo groups. The plasma hypoxanthine levels were significantly different from rest for both the creatine and placebo groups (P<0.0001). Plasma urate had significant change in concentrations over the time points (P<0.005). Another significant difference was found between the creatine and placebo groups for the pre-and post tests conducted (P<0.005). The creatine group showed a non-significant increase (7%) in mean total intramuscular creatine concentration. No significant differences were found in the mean values for total nucleotide concentration pre- and post loading in the creatine and placebo groups. Conclusions: The 5 km performance test resulted in high values for plasma lactate, hypoxanthine and urate, an indication of fatigue induced by this performance test. Oral creatine supplementation did not improve performance significantly in the variable fixedworkload protocol 5 km time trials or the individual 5-km time trials and had an effect on adenine nucleotide metabolism in both the variable fixed-workload protocol 5-km time trial and individual 5 km time trial performance tests. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die 5 km fietsry tyd toets (TT) verg hoëvolgehoue, spierkrag en wesenlike oksidatiewe en glikolitiese energie verskaffing. Die doelwitte van hierdie tesis was eerstens om 'n nuwe fietsergometer toets te ontwerp vir die voorspelling van kompetisie prestasie. Die toets was 'n veranderlike, voorafvasgestelde werkladingstoets (VVWT). Dit is vergelyk met 'n maksimale volgehoue kraguitsetingstoets (MVKT) en 'n 5 km TT. Daarna is bepaal ofkreatien supplementasie 'n effek sou hê op enige van hierdie oefeningstoetse of metabolisme tydens die 5 km TT. Die supplementasie eksperiment was 'n enkelblinde, plasebo-gekontroleerde studie ontwerp. Dertien manlike fietsryers het vrywilliglik deelgeneem. Resultate: Daar was 'n statisties betekenisvolle verskil tussen die 5 km TT wat vars onderneem is en die wat direk na die VVWT onderneem is (P=O.OOOl). Daar was ook 'n betekenisvolle korrelasie tussen die twee verskillende hoë intensiteit korttydsvak oefeningstoetse (r=-0.79 P<O.Ol vir TT en MVKT). Plasma laktaat konsentrasies was betekenisvol verhoog met vergelyking van die monsters geneem tydens rus en all ander onteledings tydspunte (P<0.0001) tot en met 20 minute na oefening. Hypoxantien (P<O.OOOl) en uraat (P=0.05) konsentrasies was ook betekenisvol verskillend van rus by alle ander tysdpunte. Daar was 'n betekenisvolle korrelasie tussen plasma laktaat direk na oefening en die % Myosien Swaarketting (MIlC) I (r=0.59, P<0.05) en % MHC ITa (r= - 0.61, P<0.05). Studie 2 - Na supplementasie was daar geen verskil in oefeningsprestasie nie maar wel in plasma metaboliet waardes van nie. Gevolgtrekkings: Die 5 km TT het baie hoë waardes vir plasma laktaat tot gevolg gehad, asook hypoxantien en uraat, 'n indikasie van die hoë mate van vermoeienis deur hierdie oefeningtoets berwerkstellig. Kreatine supplementasie kon nie oefeningsprestasie verbeter nie.

It is well documented that engaging in resistance exercise can lead to further improvements in endurance performance. Whilst, not fully understood, it is speculated that increased motor unit recruitment, improved muscle coordination and enhanced utilisation of stored elastic energy after resistance-based exercise improves exercise economy. Nevertheless, while prolonged exposure to resistance training improves endurance performance in the long-term, a consequence of such training when unaccustomed is the appearance of exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD). Exercise-induced muscle damage is well known to affect athletic performance requiring muscular strength and power; however, its effects on markers of endurance exercise are unclear. Therefore, the aim of this thesis was to investigate the effects of EIMD on endurance performance, with an emphasis on the physiological (oxygen uptake; , minute ventilation; ), metabolic (blood lactate; [La]), perceptual (rating of perceived exertion; RPE) and kinematic (stride length; SL, stride frequency; SF) responses during sub-maximal endurance exercise.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of extreme exercise on vitamin B-6 metabolism and urea nitrogen. Nine men and five women completed two 5-day trials; Trial 1 (T1) included a 50-km ultramarathon on day 4 and during Trial 2 (T2) subjects were "inactive" on day 4. During both trials, subjects consumed a diet providing men 2.0 and women 1.5 mg of vitamin B-6. With the exception of the ultramarathon, T1 activity was replicated during T2. Twenty four-hour urine collections were completed and blood was drawn pre-race (pre), mid-race (mid), post-race (post) and 60 minutes post race (P-60). On the inactive, day blood was drawn at the same intervals. Plasma was analyzed for pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP), pyridoxal, 4-pyridoxic acid (4-PA), urea nitrogen (PUN), creatinine, albumin, glucose, and lactate concentration and alkaline phosphatase activity. Urine was analyzed for 4PA, creatinine, and total urinary nitrogen (TUN). During T1, compared to pre, plasma PLP concentration increased 17% at mid, decreased 5% by post, and 19% by P-60. During T2, plasma PLP concentration decreased 13% pre to P-60. During T1, plasma 4-PA concentration increased 135% and the percent dietary vitamin B-6 that was excreted as urinary 4-PA the day of the ultramarathon was higher than that excreted the day before and the day after. During T1, from pre to post mean PUN concentration increased 36.9%, and the average rate ofincrease from pre to mid, mid to post, and post to P60 was 0.5, 1.75, and 2 mg/dL/hour, respectively. During T1 on days 3, 4, and 5,88%, 100%, and 95% of nitrogen intake was excreted in the urine compared to 86%, 83%, and 84% for the same days during T2. The day of the ultramarathon, 24-hour TUN excretion was 2 g higher than the previous day. Extreme exercise of greater than six hours initially increases the plasma concentration of PLP but ultimately results in a significant decrease in plasma PLP, an increase in plasma 4-PA, and an increase in percent of dietary vitamin B-6 (as 4-PA) excreted in the urine. Additionally, the rate of change in PUN inoeases as duration increases. / Graduation date: 2001

Futbolas – patrauklus žaidimas, ugdantis ne tik gebėjimą bendradarbiauti, mąstyti, suvokti, prognozuoti, interpretuoti, valdyti stresą, bet ir, aišku savaime, lavina fizines žaidėjo ypatybes. Futbole vyrauja tiek bendrieji ugdymo aspektai, tiek specialusis ugdymas, kuris apima ir aerobinę ištvermę (Weineck, 2012). Literatūroje (Armstrong Welsman, 2000, cit. pagal Grajauskas, Čepulėnas, 2006; Karoblis, 1999) teigiama, kad vaikų ir paauglių amžius palankus aerobinei ištvermei ugdyti, todėl ištvermės ugdymui svarbu skirti dėmesį futbolininkų rengime. Tinkamų metodų parinkimas ugdant aerobinę ištvermę sudaro prielaidas žaisti sportininkui visą rungtynių laiką reikiamu intensyvumu, kas garantuotų sėkmingą rungtynių pabaigą. Tačiau mokslinėje literatūroje nepakankamai analizuojamas įvairių treniruotės metodų veiksmingumas ugdant jaunųjų futbolininkų ištvermę. Darbe analizuojamas dviejų skirtingų ugdymo programų poveikis 13 metų vaikinų ištvermės lavinimui. Tyrime dalyvauja penkiolika 13 m. futbolininkų vaikinų. Hipotezė: mes manome, kad taikant 3 savaites (pirmadienį, trečiadienį ir penktadienį) aerobinės ištvermės - jėgos ištvermės programą, ištvermės rodikliai pagerės labiau nei taikant aerobinės ištvermės ugdymo programą. Tyrimo tikslas – tris savaites (pirmadienį, trečiadienį, penktadienį) 13 m. futbolininkams taikant aerobinės ištvermės ugdymo programą bei aerobinės - jėgos ištvermės ugdymo programą nustatyti šių programų poveikį sportininkų ištvermės rezultatų dinamikai... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / Football is an atractive game that trains opportunity to communicate, contemplate, realise, suppose, interpret and control stress. In addition to this, game also trains physical features of players. Common training aspects and special training, involving aerobic endurance, dominate in this game (Weineck, 2012). According to the literature (Armstrong Welsman, 2000, cit. pagal Grajauskas, Čepulėnas, 2006; Karoblis, 1999), children‘s and teenagers‘ age is suitable to train physical endurance. In this case, is very important to keep attention on players‘ training. Appropriate choice of endurance‘s training could ensure to play all competition time with high intensity. As a result, it guarantees final victory. In fact, there are lack of various training methods analysis in scientific literature. Two various training programms‘ influance is analised in the task. Research involves fifteen 13 years old boys. Hypothesis: supposedly three weeks (weekly three times intensity) using aerobic endurance training programme together with aerobic power sport training programme, footballers endurance results will be better than using three weeks (three time a week intensity) aerobic endurance training programme. Research purpose - three weeks (three times a week intensity) using aerobic endurance training programme and aerobic power training programme find theese programs effect joung footballers on aerobic endurance exploring results using Multistage test. In fact, aerobic – strenght... [to full text]

The purpose of this study was to investigate strength and flexibility development as each is affected by three training programs using two apparatuss the Exer-Genie and the Super-Mini-Gym.