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För att motverka halka på vägar och skapa bättre framkomlighet och trafiksäkerhet för trafikanter under vintersäsonger, används halkskyddsmedel på vägarna. I dagsläget och sannolikt under en överskådlig framtid innebär det att man använder natriumkloridbaserade medel NaCl i form av vägsalt då NaCl är det mest effektiva samt kostnadseffektiva medlet för halkskydd. Trots att NaCl är det mest effektiva medlet mot halka kan vägsalt samtidigt orsaka vissa negativa effekter på miljön. Studier visar på att vägsaltet sprider sig i miljön genom flera olika transportmekanismer vilket gör vägsaltet till ett komplext problem. Vägsalt påverkar bland annat träden negativt, långvarig exponering för salt kan försvaga träden och leda till att träden dör. Klimatförändringar har potentialen att även i framtiden öka, om än kontraintuitivt, efterfrågan på vägsalt i städer med kallt vinterklimat. Därav behövs ett proaktivt tillvägagångssätt för att minska de negativa effekterna vägsaltet har på miljön och träden. Forskning visar på att det finns behov av mer kunskap samt kvalitativa studier gällande vägsalt och dess miljöeffekter. Hittills har det inte funnits någon probabilistisk metod för att bedöma miljörisken vägsalt utgör för gatuträden för att ge nödvändigt stöd till beslutsfattare. Riskbedömningar och riskhantering är viktiga medel i beslutstödjande arbeten. Syftet med denna studie har därav varit att utveckla, tillämpa och utvärdera modeller för övergripande miljöriskbedömningar av vägsalt som ett miljöförorenande ämne. För studien valdes två gator i Stockholms stad, Vasagatan samt Sockenvägen. Studien inleds med litteraturstudier som behandlar trädens roll i urbana miljöer, vägsaltets spridningsvägar, vägsaltets påverkan på träden och miljön samt olika saltmanagementmetoder. Baserade på data från litteraturstudien utfördes miljöriskbedömningar för träd-och vegetation, grundvatten samt jord i studieområdena. En riskbedömning utfördes för ett scenario där vägsalt inte används på vägarna och risken detta kan utgöra för människor. Vidare utvecklades och arbetades det fram olika åtgärdsförslag för studieområdena. Åtgärdsförslagen bedömdes och graderades i en bedömningsmatris. Sammantaget belyser studien vikten av att kontinuerligt samla in saltdata, skapa förståelse för vägsaltets spridningsvägar, utföra miljöriskanalyser på flera miljöområden gällande vägsalt, arbeta fram olika saltmanagementmetoder samt upprätta policyn för vägsalt i syfte att minimera vägsaltets skadliga effekter på träden och ekosystemen i Stockholms stad. / To prevent slippery roads and ensure better traffic safety for road-users during winter seasons, de-icing agents are used on the roads. Currently and probably for the foreseeable future this means using the sodium chloride-based agent NaCl in the form of road salt, which currently is the most effective and cost-effective de-icer. Despite benefits for road safety road salt can at the same time pose negative effects on the environment. Several studies describe how road salt spreads in the environment through several different transport mechanisms, which deems road salt a complex problem. Road salt affects, among other things trees negatively, prolonged exposure to salt weakens the trees and can lead to the death of the damaged trees. Climate change has the potential to even in the future, albeit counterintuitively, increase the demand for NaCl based road salt, during winter seasons in cities with continental climate, as road salt is a cost-effective agent. Hence, a proactive approach is needed to be able to reduce the negative effects road salt has on the environment and trees. Research shows there is a need for more knowledge and qualitative studies regarding road salt and its environmental effects and the effects on street trees. Until now there has been no probabilistic method to assess the environmental risks posed by road salt on street trees to provide the necessary support to decision makers. Environmental risk assessments and risk management are important tools in decision support. The aim of this study has therefore been to develop, apply and evaluate a model for an overall environmental risk assessment of road salt as a pollutant. For the study two streets were chosen in the city of Stockholm, Vasagatan and Sockenvägen. The study is introduced with literature studies on the roles of trees in urban environments, the dispersal paths of road salt, the impact of road salt on trees and the environment and road salt management methods. Based on data from the literature study an environmental risk assessment was carried out for trees and vegetation, ground water and soil in the study areas. A risk assessment was carried out for a scenario where road salt is not applied on the roads and the risk this may pose to human health. Furthermore, various suggestions for mitigation methods for the study areas were developed. The proposed mitigation measures were assessed and graded in an assessment matrix. The study highlights the importance of collecting road salt data continuously over several seasons, creating an understanding of road salt's dispersal paths, performing environmental risk assessments and analysis on several environmental areas regarding road salt. The study also highlights the need for developing different salt management methods and establishing policies aimed to reduce harmful effects of road salt on the trees and ecosystems in the city of Stockholm.

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[pt] Por suas características naturais e sociais, o Brasil desponta como um dos países mais afetados pelos eventos extremos. Diante de tantas tragédias oriundas dos chamados desastres naturais, faz-se necessário redimensionar a importância da discussão acerca dos riscos socioambientais. A prevenção para os desastres naturais é um procedimento eficaz e de baixo custo se comparada com a restauração dos prejuízos ocasionados por esses eventos. As ferramentas contidas nos Sistemas de Informação Geográficas (SIGs) podem auxiliar efetivamente na prevenção dos riscos. A presente pesquisa é uma proposta metodológica para a análise de riscos socioambientais, utilizando como base a álgebra de mapas. O cenário escolhido foi o município fluminense de Teresópolis, por conta de sua geografia e de seu histórico de eventos naturais extremos. Fez-se uso de três frentes de dados para o cálculo do risco socioambiental: cartas de suscetibilidade da CPRM, mapeamento de uso e cobertura do INEA; e dados censitários do IBGE. Cruzou-se, através da álgebra de mapas, as três bases de dados oficiais, gerando resultados satisfatórios na análise de risco socioambiental. Nesse sentido a metodologia da presente pesquisa permitiu o manuseio de alguns dados dispersos, correlacionando-os em ambiente SIG e, oferecendo uma nova proposta no tratamento do risco socioambiental. / [en] Due to its natural and social characteristics, Brazil emerges as one of the countries most affected by extreme events. Faced with so many tragedies arising from the so-called natural disasters, it is necessary to re-dimension the importance of the discussion about socio-environmental risks. Preventing natural disasters is an efficient and cost-effective procedure compared to restoring the damages caused by these events. The tools contained in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can effectively aid in risk prevention. The present research is a methodological proposal for the analysis of socioenvironmental risks, based on map algebra. The chosen scenario was the Rio de Janeiro municipality of Teresópolis, due to its geography and its history of extreme natural events. Three data fronts were used to calculate socioenvironmental risk: CPRM susceptibility charts, use mapping and INEA coverage; and IBGE census data. All the data were integrated and manipulated in a GIS environment, providing reliable results about the social-environmental risk level of the municipality. In this sense, the methodology of the present research allowed the manipulation of some dispersed data, correlating them in a GIS environment, and offering a new proposal in the treatment of socio-environmental risk.

The provision of reliable, safe, affordable and accessible power supply is one of the most important cornerstones for economic development, particularly for third world countries. Notwithstanding all known benefits of power supply, there are environmental risks associated with electricity generation, transmission and usage that need to be identified, assessed and managed. These risks range from minor to major risks such as serious bodily harm and fatalities as well as environmental degradation. In order to minimise and control the operational risks, it is key for the sector to ensure that the risks are identified and assessed using appropriate tools and systems to ensure sustainability and safe work environments. This study explored, improved and designed a tool for environmental risk assessment within Swaziland Electricity Company, (SEC) based on clause 4.3.1 of ISO 14001 (2004), Environmental Management System and Occupational Health and Safety Assessment Series, OHSAS 18001 (2007), Occupational Health and Safety System. The previous risk assessment and evaluation tool used in the company ignored existing risk control practices employed and thus did not truly quantify identified risks. The methodology presented in this study focused on the identification of hazards/aspects and risks associated with processes in electricity generation, transmission and distribution. Risks were evaluated and all possible measures to control the identified risks were suggested. The top three significant hazards identified include; exposure to live wires, road hazards and the use of uncertified/ defective/wrong equipment and/or machinery whilst the significant impacts were: soil pollution, natural resource degradation/ depletion, loss of flora and fauna and social impacts. The distribution department was observed to have the most environmental risks when compared to the other departments. The developed tool and data could be used as baseline information by other sectors wishing to implement environment and safety systems. It will also continually improve the safety and environmental performance of SEC. / Environmental Science / D. Phil. (Environmental Science)

The commercial mining of asbestos occurred in four Provinces of South Africa (Northern Cape, North West, Limpopo and Mpumalanga). It was initiated in the late 1800's and lasted for over a hundred years into the beginning of this century. As a producer of amphibole asbestos, South Africa far outpaced every other country being responsible for 97% of global production. The last crocidolite mine closed in 1996 and chrysotile in 2002. Anecdotal information concerning environmental contamination as a result of the former mining activities and the improper disposal of mine waste tailings has been reported by a variety of authors. Few comprehensive or systematic surveys have been conducted to date to document this issue and very little quantifiable research has been completed on the communities located in close proximity to the former mine sites to determine the extent of contamination. In 2004-2006 communities were surveyed within the Northern Cape and North West Provinces to determine the extent and severity of environmental contamination. This research developed and applied a methodology to select those communities suspected of environmental contamination, a targeted survey methodology, and a protocol for rapid sample laboratory analysis. A total of 41 communities were initially predicted by the model to be suspected for environmental asbestos contamination. Based on the inclusion of local knowledge, a final 36 communities were selected for a screening-level field assessment, 34 of which were found to contain environmental asbestos contamination at rates ranging from 20 to 100% of the surveyed locations. A total of 1 843 samples of soil and building material were collected in the screening level assessment. One community (Ga-Mopedi) was selected as being representative of the total cohort and a more detailed house to house survey was completed. A total of 1 486 samples were collected during the detailed survey. Results of the detailed survey revealed 26.2% of the homes were contaminated with asbestos containing soil and/or building material. A theoretical quantitative cumulative exposure assessment was developed to estimate the disease burden within the study area population of 126,130 individuals within the surveyed communities resulting in a predicted range of 25-52.4 excess deaths per year from lung cancer and mesothelioma due solely to environmental exposures to asbestos pollution.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2000. / During the last five years, successful mine closure has become one of Iscor Coal Business primary strategic focus areas. Three Iscor Coalmines are currently in different stages of closure, i.e. North Field, Hlobane and Dumacol and the demand on management time spent on this issue is increasing. The changing legal environment, especially issues concerning rehabilitation and mine closure, demands that every company must take full responsibility for any detrimental effect that their operations may have on the environment. This study concerns itself with establishing a generic procedure for mine closure. The interface with all stakeholders, external and internal, is considered. The primary focus areas are determined and the most important issues within each area are discussed in such a way that operational managers and strategists could use it as base knowledge for future closures. Applying the model to an actual closure process, i.e. the closure of Durnacol Coalmine, tested the validity of the model and it was verified that the process could be used as a base for future reference.

La prima parte dell’elaborato presenta le origini e lo sviluppo delle politiche di valutazione del rischio per le sostanze chimiche. Dopo un primo inquadramento storico, l’attenzione è stata dedicata a temi emergenti come la valutazione delle incertezze, la necessità di integrazione delle valutazioni del rischio per l’uomo e per l'ambiente. La seconda parte presenta l’evoluzione delle politiche di valutazione del rischio dei prodotti fitosanitari, soprattutto a livello europeo (dall’applicazione della direttiva 91/414 all’attuale regolamento 1107/2009), con particolare attenzione all’applicazione del principio di precauzione. Il terzo capitolo approfondisce le fasi e gli approcci delle attuali procedure di valutazione ambientale del rischio dei pesticidi usati a livello europeo e americano; è stato in particolar modo esplorato il tema dell’individuazione degli obiettivi specifici di protezione in fase preliminare di valutazione del rischio. Il quarto capitolo tratta di un tema attualmente molto dibattuto, ovvero la valutazione dei potenziali effetti combinati sugli organismi non bersaglio esposti a più sostanze attive simultaneamente. Infine, l’obiettivo del quinto capitolo è quello di valutare la contaminazione ambientale dovuta all’applicazione di fungicidi a base rame su melo. A tale scopo è stato testato un nuovo modello per il calcolo integrato dell’esposizioni umana e ambientale MERLIN – Expo, sviluppato grazie al progetto europeo 4FUN. I risultati ottenuti per le acque superficiali e il sedimento sono stati confrontati con i risultati degli attuali modelli usati in Unione Europea, i modelli FOCUS. Le simulazioni probabilistiche hanno anche permesso di effettuare valutazioni di incertezza e sensitività sui parametri utilizzati nelle simulazioni. / This PhD thesis is a multidisciplinary work on the risk assessment of plant protection products including both legislative and scientific aspects. The first part of the thesis introduces the origin of risk assessment procedures with a wide glance on the whole process of risk analysis to protect the humans and the environment. The accent is put on emerging issues and trends, such as the uncertainties appraisal, the necessity of integration between human and environmental impacts without ignoring socio- economic and behavioural factors. The second chapter deals with the origin and development of global risk assessment policies on pesticides. It focuses in particular on European policies, from the original Directive 91/414 to the current Regulation 1107/2009 and the application of the precautionary principle. A brief comparison with US approaches for risk assessment is also presented. The third chapter gives an overview on the risk assessment procedures that nowadays provide the highest achievable protection for the environment, starting with the definition of clear and specific protection goals. The fourth chapter addresses the issue of combined risk assessment of pesticides: current approaches for the evaluation of effects on non-target organisms are analysed. The last chapter is dedicated to the estimation of the environmental contamination following the application of copper –based fungicides sprayed on orchards by using MERLIN - Expo, which is a multimedia model developed in the frame of the FP7 EU project 4FUN. The performance of the MERLIN- Expo software in estimating the contamination of the metal is also analysed through a comparison with the currently used FOCUS standard models for the calculation of pesticides concentrations in surface water and sediment. Both deterministic and probabilistic simulations have been run; the latter has allowed to perform uncertainty and sensitivity assessment.

[Truncated abstract] The application of reductionism, breaking down problems to simpler components that can be solved and then aggregating the results, is one of the bases of classical science. However, living organisms, ecosystems, social and economic structures are complex systems, characterised by non-linear interactions between their elements and exhibit emergent properties that are not directly traceable to their components. Sustainability assessment frameworks oversimplify system interactions, achieving limited predictive capacity and causing managerial behavior that may reduce system's ability to adapt to external disturbance. Intrigued by the importance of complexity, we explore the central theme of how complex thinking can influence the understanding and progress towards sustainability. The purpose is to conceptualize the relationship of key terms (such as sustainability, functionality and resilience), and consecutively develop new or adjust existing sustainability frameworks to take into account complex systems interactions. We aim at developing theory and frameworks that can be used to raise awareness of the pitfalls of the growth paradigm and direct towards modest positions when managing complex systems. We seek to define the structural elements that influence system adaptive capacity, allowing identification of early signs of system rigidity or vulnerability and the development of knowledge and techniques that can improve our predictive and managerial ability. The focus has been on a variety of system scales and dynamics. At the collective community level, a number of stakeholder engagement practices and frameworks are currently available. However, there is limited awareness of the complexity challenges among stakeholders, who are commonly directed to a triple bottom line analysis aiming at maximizing a combination of outputs. An attempt is conducted to measure the functionality of the processes underlying a standing stock, in contrast to sustainability measures that only assess the variations of the standing stock itself. We develop the Index of Sustainable Functionality (ISF), a framework for the assessment of complex systems interactions within a large-scale geographic domain and apply it to the State of Western Australia. '...' Finally, we focus on smaller systems scales and develop a methodology for the calculation of Product Ecological Footprint (PEF) including elements from the accounting method of activity based costing. We calculate PEF for three apple production systems and identify significant differences from first stage calculations within the same industry. Cross-industry application will provide a practical way to link individuals' consumption with their ecological impact, reduce misperceptions of products' ecological impacts and develop a market-driven approach to internalizing environmental externalities. At the firm level PEF can be compared with investment costs, resulting in the opportunity to optimize both functions of financial cost and ecological impact in decision making. We have developed methods for incorporating complexity in sustainability assessment frameworks. Further work is required in testing and validating these methodologies at multiple system scales and conditions. Integrating such tools in decision making mechanisms will enhance long-term management of socioecological systems performance.

(Truncated abstract) The aims of this thesis are: (i) To estimate the prevalence of psychiatric illness among persons with intellectual disability and, conversely, the prevalence of intellectual disability among persons with a psychiatric illness; (ii) To describe the disability and service utilisation profile of persons with conjoint disorder; (iii) To examine, in particular, intellectual disability co-occurring with schizophrenia; and (iv) To explore the role of hereditary and environmental (specifically obstetric) risk factors in the aetiology of (i) intellectual disability and (ii) intellectual disability co-occurring with psychiatric illness. This thesis has a special interest in the relationship between intellectual disability and schizophrenia. Where data and sample sizes permit, it explores that relationship at some depth and has included sections on the putative nature of the link between intellectual disability and schizophrenia in the introductory and discussion chapters. To realise its objectives, the thesis comprises a core study focusing on aims (i) – (iii) and a supplementary study whose focus is aim (iv). It also draws on work from an ancillary study completed prior to the period of candidacy...This thesis found that, overall, 31.7% of persons with an intellectual disability had a psychiatric illness; 1.8% of persons with a psychiatric illness had an intellectual disability. The rate of schizophrenia, but not bipolar disorder or unipolar major depression, was greatly increased among cases of conjoint disorder: depending on birth cohort, 3.7-5.2% of individuals with intellectual disability had co-occurring schizophrenia. Down syndrome was much less prevalent among conjoint disorder cases despite being the most predominant cause of intellectual disability while pervasive developmental disorder was over-represented. Persons with conjoint disorder had a more severe clinical profile including higher mortality rates than those with a single disability. The supplementary study confirmed the findings in the core body of work with respect to the extent of conjoint disorder, its severity, and its relationship with pervasive development disorder and Down syndrome. Moreover, the supplementary study and the ancillary influenza study indicated a role for neurodevelopmental insults including obstetric complications in the adverse neuropsychiatric outcomes, with timing of the insult a potentially critical element in defining the specific outcome. The supplementary study also added new information on familiality in intellectual disability. It found that, in addition to parental intellectual disability status and exposure to labour and delivery complications at birth, parental psychiatric status was an independent predictor of intellectual disability in offspring as well as a predictor of conjoint disorder. In conclusion, the facility to collect and integrate records held by separate State administrative health jurisdictions, and to analyse them within the one database has had a marked impact on the capacity for this thesis to estimate the prevalence of conjoint disorder among intellectually disabled and psychiatric populations, and to understand more about its clinical manifestations and aetiological underpinnings.