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No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Cl?udio_Queiroz_TESE.pdf: 3430647 bytes, checksum: cd4fc13e7f5364c58653d2f2c6808b34 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2005 / As epilepsias do lobo temporal s?o as que apresentam maior refratariedade ao tratamento farmacol?gico e perfazem 2/3 das interven??es cir?rgicas de epilepsia, sendo portanto de grande custo social, econ?mico e psicol?gico. Assim, modelos animais de epilepsia do lobo temporal s?o de grande relev?ncia n?o s? para o entendimento das bases neurais dessa patologia, mas tamb?m para o desenvolvimento de abordagens terap?uticas capazes de evitar a instala??o da doen?a. Esses s?o os objetivos da presente disserta??o de doutorado. Ap?s um evento traum?tico (no caso deste trabalho, um estado de mal epil?ptico), diversas altera??es morfol?gicas e fisiol?gicas acontecem, caracterizando a g?nese da s?ndrome epil?ptico (epileptog?nese). Dentre as altera??es podemos destacar a intensa fosforila??o de prote?nas em res?duos de tirosina e a ativa??o de diferentes segundos mensageiros. Os dois primeiros cap?tulos desta tese descrevem a tentativa de bloquear os processos de epileptog?nese por meio da inibi??o da fosforila??o de res?duos de tirosina atrav?s do tratamento farmacol?gico com inibidores das tirosina cinases, a herbimicina A e o K-252a. O terceiro cap?tulo analisa eletrofisiologicamente o circuito neural do giro denteado em animais que apresentavam uma muta??o em um s?tio inibit?rio da prote?na c?lcio/calmodulina cinase do tipo II (CaMKII). No primeiro cap?tulo, mostramos que o tratamento agudo com herbimicina A (348?M, 5?L, icv), ? capaz de bloquear a potencia??o duradoura (LTP) induzida por um est?mulo tet?nico bem como de atenuar (~40%) a ativa??o neuronal (express?o de c-Fos) decorrente de um estado de mal epil?ptico induzido pela administra??o sist?mica de pilocarpina (SE). Apesar dos significativos efeitos agudos, este tratamento mostrou-se incapaz de atenuar a freq??ncia de crises espont?neas, bem como o padr?o de morte neuronal observado ap?s o estado de mal epil?ptico induzido pela pilocarpina. Entretanto, o tratamento com herbimicina A alterou o padr?o de marca??o de metais pesados (Zn+2) no hilo do giro denteado e na regi?o de CA3 do hipocampo, por?m n?o apresentou efeito sobre o padr?o de brotamento das fibras musgosas observado na camada molecular do giro denteado. No segundo cap?tulo, mostramos que a herbimicina e o K- 252a modificam a atividade epileptiforme induzida pela administra??o intra-hipocampal de ?cido ca?nico, sem alterar o padr?o de morte neuronal. Esses resultados sugerem que o tratamento com inibidores de prote?nas tirosina cinases ? capaz de modificar o padr?o de ativa??o agudo do hipocampo ap?s um est?mulo (i.e., o estado de mal epil?ptico ou a LTP), por?m sem qualquer efeito sobre o processo de epileptog?nese. No terceiro cap?tulo, estudamos a excitabilidade e a plasticidade do giro denteado ? estimula??o da via perfurante (principal afer?ncia da forma??o hipocampal) em animais que apresentam uma CaMKII geneticamente modificada. Essa prote?na uma vez ativada n?o pode ser inibida. A caracteriza??o eletrofisiol?gica demonstrou que esses animais apresentam potenciais de campo evocados no giro denteado aparentemente semelhante aos animais controle (wild-type), por?m sua responsividade a padr?es de estimula??o em salvas e sua plasticidade apresentaram clara altera??o. Essa modifica??o foi caracterizada por uma maior variabilidade nas respostas ? trens de estimula??o (freq??ncias de 1 e 2 Hz) e maior inibi??o do pulso pareado em trens de estimula??o (para pulsos pareados aplicados a freq??ncia de 5 Hz). Al?m disso, conforme j? descrito na literatura, mostramos que a susceptibilidade a atividade epileptiforme depende do padr?o de estimula??o utilizado para os diferentes animais (mutantes vs. wild-type). Assim, utilizando o modelo cl?ssico do abrasamento demonstramos que a muta??o n?o altera a evolu??o da epileptog?nese. Entretanto, ao utilizarmos duas variantes de um padr?o de estimula??o similar ? freq??ncia teta (5Hz, Intermittent vs. Continuous theta-burst stimulations), demonstramos a import?ncia da muta??o na manuten??o da excitabilidade do giro denteado. Esses resultados destacam a import?ncia da CaMKII na atividade epileptiforme al?m de sugerir novas abordagens experimentais (i.e., sensibilidade ? padr?es de estimula??o eletrofisiol?gica) no estudo da epileptog?nese. Em resumo, os resultados apresentados nessa tese contribuem para um melhor entendimento dos fen?menos subjacentes aos processos de plasticidade neuronal e da contribui??o destes para o fen?meno de epileptog?nese, al?m de sugerir / Temporal lobe epilepsies are highly refractory to pharmacological treatment. Up to 70% of these patients undergo chirurgical resection of temporal region, procedure with important consequences for the social, economic and psychological spheres. Experimental animal models that mimic temporal lobe epilepsy provide an insightful approach to study the neural basis of epilepsy as well as create opportunities to test promising therapeutic drugs. The present thesis tests the antiepileptogenic activity of two protein tyrosine kinase inhibitors and the relevance of Ca+2/calmodulin kinase type II (CaMKII) mutants. Multiples morphological and physiological alterations take place after a traumatic brain injury (in this thesis, the status epilepticus) leading the animal to an epileptic conditions. During this period, the epileptogenesis process, there is strong tyrsine phosphorylation with the activation of many second messengers. The first two chapters of the thesis describe experiments in which herbimycin A and K-252a, two protein tyrosine kinase inhibitors, were used to attenuate synaptic plasticity and epileptogenesis. The third chapter, the dentate gyrus network was studied after angular bundle stimulation in animals presenting one punctual mutation at the autoinhibitory phosphorylation site of the CaMKII. In the first chapter, we showed that one single herbimycin A injection (348?M, 5?L, icv) was able to attenuate long-term potentiation (LTP) in the commissural CA3 neurons and also, to decrease status epilepticus- (SE-) induced neuronal activation (c-Fos expression) in almost 40%. Although markedly acute effects, the present herbimycin A treatment was not able to diminish spontaneous seizure frequency, cell death or aberrant mossy fiber sprouting observed after the pilocarpine-induced SE. Curiously, herbimycin-treated animals presented decreased neo-Timm staining in the hilus and CA3 region despite the epileptic condition. In the second chapter, we confirmed the ability of protein tyrosine kinase inhibitors to decrease SE-induced neuronal activation. Herbimycin A icv treatment altered the kainic acid-induced epileptiform profile in EEG recordings. Cell death pattern was not altered by any pharmacological treatment. These results suggest that protein tyrosine kinase inhibitiors are able to modify the acute neuronal activation and plasticity (ictogenesis or LTP) but is ineffective in attenuating the epileptogenesis process. In the third chapter, we studied the dentate gyrus excitability and plasticity after angular bundle stimulation in CaMKII mutant animals. Once in its self-sustained mode, this mutation does not allow the reduction of the catalytic activity of the kinase. These animals present normal electrophysiological profiles (similar to wild-type animals) but with reduced amplitude. Shortterm plasticity was clearly altered. Mutant animals presented increased variability in the responses to trains of stimulation at 1 and 2 Hz, and at at 5Hz stronger paired-pulse inhibition. Accordingly to the literature, we also showed that the epileptiform susceptibility depends on the stimulation pattern used in both animals (mutants vs. wild-type). Thus, although the mutation did not altered the behavior and the electrographic kindling evolution, we showed that mutant animals were prone to afterdischarges when stimulate by an intermittent theta-burst stimulation. On the other hand, the same animals needed more bursts to induce afterdischarges when the stimulation was set in the continuos mode. Taken together, the present results contribute to a better understanding of the protein tyrosine kinase and CaMKII function in neuronal plasticity underlying the epileptogenesis process and sum efforts in searching for a clinic antiepileptogenic drug.

GABA is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. It binds to two types of receptors –ionotropic GABAA and metabotropic GABAB. The GABAA receptor directly gates a Clionophore that causes hyperpolarization in mature excitatory neurons while GABAB receptor mediates a slower hyperpolarizing response via G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) activated potassium channels. This signaling mechanism gets further complicated by the heterogeneous GABA receptor subunit composition that influences the response kinetics in the postsynaptic membrane. In this thesis, the focus has been to decipher the role of GABAA receptors in relation to cellular excitability in the subiculum under physiological and pathophysiological conditions. The subiculum, considered as the output structure of hippocampus, modulates information flow from hippocampus to various cortical and sub-cortical areas and has been implicated in learning and memory, rhythm generation and various neurological disorders. It gates hippocampal activity with its well orchestrated and fine tuned intrinsic and local network properties. Over the years many studies have shown the involvement of subiculum in temporal lobe epilepsy where it forms the focal point of epileptiform activities with altered cellular and network properties. The subiculum is characterized by the presence of a significant population of burst firing neurons that lead local epileptiform activity. By virtue of its bursting nature and recurrent connections, it is a potential site for seizure generation and maintenance. Epileptiform activities are dynamic in nature and change temporally and spatially according to the alterations in electrophysiological properties of neurons. Transitions to different electrical activities in neurons following a prolonged challenge with epileptogenic stimulus have been shown in other brain structures, but not in the subiculum. Considering the importance of the subicular burst firing neurons in the propagation of epileptiform activity to the entorhinal cortex, we have explored the phenomenon of electrophysiological phase transitions in the burst firing neurons of the subiculum in an in vitro brain slice model of epileptogenesis. Whole-cell patch clamp and extracellular field recordings revealed a distinct phenomenon in the subiculum wherein an early hyperexcitable phase was followed by a late suppressed phase upon continuous perfusion with epileptogenic 4-amino pyridine and magnesium-free medium. The late suppressed phase was characterized by inhibitory post-synaptic potentials (IPSPs) in pyramidal excitatory neurons and bursting activity in local fast spiking interneurons at a frequency of 0.1-0.8 Hz. The IPSPs were mediated by GABAA receptors that coincided with excitatory synaptic inputs to attenuate action potential discharge. These IPSPs ceased following a cut between the CA1 and subiculum. Our results suggest the importance of feedforward inhibition in the suppression of epileptiform activity in subiculum to mediate a homeostatic response towards the induced hyper-excitability. GABA release from presynaptic nerve endings activates postsynaptic GABAA receptors, which evoke faster phasic inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs) and non-inactivating inhibitory tonic current, mediated through extrasynaptic GABAA receptors. These receptors are heteropentameric GABA-gated channels assembled from 19 possible subunits (α1-6, β1-3, γ1-3, δ, π, ρ1-3, θ, and ε). The 2 major subunits involved in tonic GABAA currents in the hippocampus are α5 and δ subunits. Tonic GABAA receptor mediated inhibitory current plays an important role in neuronal physiology as well as pathophysiology such as mood disorders, insomnia, epilepsy, autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia. While the alterations of various electrical properties due to tonic inhibition have been studied in neurons from different regions, its influence on intrinsic subthreshold resonance in pyramidal excitatory neurons having hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels is not known. In the present study, we show the involvement of α5βγ GABAA receptors in mediating picrotoxin sensitive tonic current in subicular pyramidal neurons using known pharmacological agents that target specific GABAA receptor subunits. We further investigated the contribution of tonic conductance in regulating subthreshold electrophysiological properties using current clamp and dynamic clamp experiments. Our experiments suggest that tonic GABAergic inhibition can actively modulate subthreshold properties of subicular pyramidal neurons including resonance due to HCNchannels that may potentially alter the response dynamics in an oscillating neuronal network.

In der Folge eines Status epilepticus entwickelt sich häufig eine chronische Epilepsie. In der vorliegenden Dissertation wurde die Fragestellung bearbeitet, ob ein Inhibitionsverlust im Gyrus dentatus Grundlage der Epileptogenese nach Status epilepticus ist. Ein selbst-erhaltender Status epilepticus (SSSE) wurde an erwachsenen Ratten durch elektrische Stimulation ausgelöst. Das Auftreten spontaner epileptischer Anfälle wurde im Verlauf von acht Wochen nach Status epilepticus zu drei Zeitpunkten (1, 4 und 8 Wochen) mittels Videoüberwachung erfasst. Zu denselben Zeitpunkten und vor Status epilepticus wurden elektrophysiologische Messungen im Gyrus dentatus durchgeführt. Die Aktivität der Prinzipalzellen des Gyrus dentatus unterliegt unter physiologischen Bedingungen einer ausgeprägten inhibitorischen Kontrolle. Durch Analyse von Doppelreizantworten wurden Veränderungen der Inhibition in dieser für die Epileptogenese relevanten Hirnstruktur beurteilt. Im Verlauf von acht Wochen nach SSSE entwickelte sich bei einem Großteil der Versuchstiere eine chronische Epilepsie. Zum spätesten Beobachtungszeitpunkt traten rekurrente spontane epileptische Anfälle bei 80 Prozent der Tiere auf. Die Inhibition im Gyrus dentatus war eine Woche nach Status epilepticus signifikant reduziert. Vier und acht Wochen nach SSSE zeigte sich eine zunehmende Wiederannäherung an die vor dem Status epilepticus erhobenen Messwerte, so dass von einem transienten Inhibitionsverlust im Gyrus dentatus nach Status epilepticus gesprochen werden kann. Zusammenfassend konnte in der Dissertation gezeigt werden, dass sich in der Folge eines Status epilepticus bei der Mehrzahl der Tiere eine chronische Epilepsie entwickelt. Der Inhibitionsverlust im Gyrus dentatus war zu einem Zeitpunkt am größten, da noch keine spontanen epileptischen Anfälle auftraten. Als sich bei den meisten Tieren eine chronische Epilepsie entwickelt hatte, war die Inhibition komplett wiederhergestellt. Daher ist ein Inhibitionsverlust im Gyrus dentatus nach einem Status epilepticus nicht der führende pathophysiologische Mechanismus für die Entwicklung einer chronischen Epilepsie. / Development of chronic epilepsy as a consequence of status epilepticus is a frequent clinical observation. The aim of this work was to test the hypothesis that epileptogenesis after status epilepticus depends on a loss of inhibitory function in the dentate gyrus. A self-sustaining status epilepticus (SSSE) was induced in rats by continuous electrical stimulation of the perforant path. The occurrence of spontaneous epileptic seizures was assessed by video monitoring 1, 4 and 8 weeks after SSSE. At the same time points and directly before SSSE, inhibition in the dentate gyrus was measured using a paired pulse paradigm. In this region, excitability of principal cells is under physiological conditions effectively controlled by the activity of inhibitory interneurons. In addition, the dentate gyrus is relevant for the process of epileptogenesis due to anatomical properties. In the time course after SSSE, the fraction of animals showing spontaneous epileptic seizures increased steadily reaching 80 % after eight weeks. One week after SSSE, inhibition in the dentate gyrus was significantly reduced. This loss proved to be transient, as inhibition recovered after 4 weeks and reached pre-status values after 8 weeks. In conclusion, the majority of animals developed chronic epilepsy as a consequence of status epilepticus. Loss of inhibition in the dentate gyrus was maximal while spontaneous seizures had not yet developed. Inhibition was normalized when most animals had become epileptic. Thus, loss of inhibition in the dentate gyrus following status epilepticus is not a decisive mechanism in the emergence of spontaneous seizures.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI), a leading cause of death and disability in the United States, causes potentially preventable damage in part through the dysregulation of neural calcium levels. This dysregulation likely affects the activity of the calcium-sensitive phosphatase, calcineurin, with serious implications for neural function. To test this possibility, the present study characterized the role of calcineurin in a rat model of brain trauma, the lateral fluid percussion injury model. Golgi-Cox histochemistry revealed an acute post-TBI loss and delayed overgrowth of dendritic spines on principal cortical cells. The spine loss appeared to require calcineurin activity, since administering a calcineurin inhibitor, FK506, 1 hour after TBI prevented the spine loss. Additional experiments showed how calcineurin activity might be related to the spine loss. Specifically, Western blots and enzyme activity assays revealed an acute increase in the cortical activity of calcineurin and its downstream effector, the actin-depolymerizing protein, cofilin. The cofilin activation was blocked by the same FK506 treatment that prevented spine loss, suggesting a relationship between cofilin activation and spine loss. To investigate long-term consequences of calcineurin activation after TBI, rats were administered FK506 (Tacrolimus) 1 hour after TBI and then monitored for spontaneous seizure activity months later. Acute post-TBI treatment with FK506 reduced the frequency of late non-convulsive seizures but did not prevent late convulsive seizures, cortical atrophy, or thalamic damage. The results of the present study implicate calcineurin in the acute dendritic remodeling and late non-convulsive seizures that occur after TBI. Importantly, these findings reveal calcineurin as a potential therapeutic target in the treatment of TBI and its sequalae.

Na epilepsia do lobo temporal (ELT), alterações morfofuncionais em estruturas límbicas são classicamente acompanhadas de déficits cognitivos. Estudos anteriores revelaram que disfunções eletrofisiológicas em circuitos hipocampo-corticais são observadas durante o sono NREM (non rapid eye movement), onde eventos patológicos como fast ripples e IEDs (interictal epileptiform discharges) substituem gradativamente eventos fisiológicos, como as sharp-wave ripples (SWR). Tal substituição pode estar por trás dos prejuízos cognitivos observados tanto nos modelos animais como em pacientes, já que as SWRs são fundamentais para a transferência de informação do hipocampo ao córtex durante a consolidação de memórias. De maneira complementar, o sono REM também parece exercer um papel fundamental em processos mnemônicos, facilitando eventos de plasticidade sináptica e coordenando regiões encefálicas distantes por meio de acoplamento entre diferentes frequências oscilatórias, tais como teta e gama. Entretanto, as alterações no sono REM durante os processos de epileptogênese ainda foram pouco exploradas. Neste trabalho testamos a hipótese de que disfunções na coordenação rítmica durante o sono REM estariam associadas a prejuízos de memória que se manifestam na epileptogênese. Para isso, submetemos ratos Wistar adultos machos a protocolo de abrasamento rápido da amígdala basolateral, possibilitando a avaliação de alterações eletrofisiológicas gradativas durante o processo de epileptogênese. Foram realizados implantes crônicos de eletrodos para registro do potencial local de campo (LFP, Local Field Potential) nas regiões de CA1 e do córtex pré-frontal medial (mPFC, medial prefrontal cortex), além de eletrodos bipolares para estímulo na amígdala basolateral. Os protocolos de abrasamento foram realizados durante um período de 3 dias, aplicando-se diariamente 10 trens de estímulos a 50 Hz com duração de 10 segundos. Para avaliarmos os prejuízos cognitivos, os animais foram submetidos a testes de reconhecimento de objetos antes do início a após o término dos protocolos de abrasamento. O sonosubsequente às sessões de reconhecimento de objetos e aos protocolos de estimulações foram registrados diariamente. Além do prejuízo no reconhecimento de objetos e alterações eletrofisiológicas durante o sono NREM, como a substituição gradativa de ripples por IEDs, os animais submetidos ao abrasamento elétrico apresentaram um aumento na comodulação fase-amplitude entre oscilações teta e gama durante o sono REM após as estimulações, exibindo também uma correlação negativa entre a comodulação e a duração das pós-descargas induzidas pelos estímulos elétricos do abrasamento durante o sono subsequente a aplicação dos protocolos. Nossos achados ampliam a compreensão vigente sobre como alterações de oscilações cerebrais durante o sono, especialmente da fase REM, poderiam estar subjacentes a prejuízos de memória que ocorrem na ELT. / Morphofunctional changes in limbic structures are classically followed by cognitive deficits in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy (TLE) patients. Previous studies revealed that electrophysiological dysfunctions in hippocampal-cortical circuits are observed during NREM (non-rapid eye movement) sleep, where pathological events such as fast ripples and IEDs (interictal epileptiform discharges) gradually replace physiological events, such as Sharpwave Ripples (SWR). This replacement seems to describe the cognitive impairments observed in animal models and TLE patients since SWRs are fundamental for information transfer from the hippocampus to cortex during memory consolidation. Complementary, REM sleep also plays a significant role in mnemonic processes, facilitating synaptic plasticity events and coordinating distant brain regions by coupling different frequencies, such as theta and gamma. However, alterations in REM sleep during the epileptogenesis processes are poorly investigated. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that dysfunctions on rhythmic coordination during REM sleep would be associated with memory deficits showed during epileptogenesis. For this, we submitted adult Wistar rats to a rapid kindling protocol on basolateral amygdala (BLA), allowing the evaluation of progressive electrophysiological changes during the epileptogenic process. Chronic electrodes were implanted for the local field potentials (LFP) recording in the CA1 and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), as well as bipolar electrodes for BLA stimulation. The kindling protocols were performed during three days, applying ten trains of 50 Hz stimulations with ten seconds duration. Object recognition tasks were performed before and after the kindling protocol to evaluate cognitive impairment. Sleep recordings were performed daily after the object recognition or kindling application. Along with object recognition impairment and electrophysiological changes during NREM sleep, such as progressive SWR substitution by IEDs, kindled rats presented an increase in phase-amplitude comodulation between theta and gamma oscillations during REM sleep after stimulation sessions, which also correlates negatively with after-discharges (AD) duration induced by the kindling stimulation. Our findingsexpand the comprehension about how changes in brain oscillations during REM sleep underlies observed memory deficits in TLE.

L’épilepsie du lobe temporal (ELT) est une pathologie neurologique sévère dont le fort taux de pharmacorésistance nécessite de nouveaux traitements. Le modèle lithium-pilocarpine modélise les caractéristiques et le développement de l’ELT. L’administration du carisbamate au début de l’épileptogenèse empêche l’apparition de l’ELT dans une sous-population de rats et la remplace par une épilepsie de type absence (ETA). L’évaluation cognitive effectuée durant la phase chronique a permis de distinguer les deux sous-populations : le groupe épilepsie de type absence ne développe pas le déficit cognitif sévère observé dans le modèle lithium pilocarpine. La spectroscopie du 13C n’a pas révélé de différence métabolique majeure entre les deux sous populations traitées, qu’elles développent une ELT ou une ETA. Ce travail souligne que l’administration précoce de carisbamate peut transformer l’ELT en une épilepsie moins sévère et fortement améliorer les comorbidités cognitives qui accompagnent l’ELT. / Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is a severe neurological disease with a high refractory rate, which requires new treatments. The lithium-pilocarpine model allows reproducing human TLE features and development. Carisbamate administration at epileptogenesis onset prevents TLE incidence in a rats’ subpopulation, which is substituted by absence-like epilepsy (ALE). Behavioral and cognitive assessment performed during chronic period allowed differentiating the two subpopulations: ALE group did not develop the severe cognitive impairment shown in the lithium-pilocarpine model. 13C spectroscopy did not show major metabolism difference between the two treated subpopulations, whatever they develop TLE or ALE. This work demonstrates that early carisbamate administration can induce a shift from TLE in a less severe epilepsy form, and can strikingly improve TLE-related cognitive comorbidities.

L’épilepsie du lobe temporal (ELT) est la forme d’épilepsie partielle la plus fréquente chez l’adulte. Elle se caractérise par une période de latence pendant laquelle l’ELT se met en place. Cette période est appelée épileptogenèse. L’épileptogenèse reste une période inaccessible chez l’Homme. Cependant, les modèles animaux présentent l’avantage de pouvoir l’étudier, dans le but de prévenir l’ELT. Ainsi, mon travail de thèse a consisté à mettre en évidence des marqueurs prédictifs de l’épileptogenèse, sur le plan cognitif et électrophysiologique in vivo, à partir du modèle pilocarpine. Les résultats ont montré que dès le stade précoce de l’épileptogenèse, des déficits de mémoire spatiale corrélaient avec une diminution de la puissance des oscillations thêta chez les animaux pilocarpine, sans modification jusqu’au stade chronique. Au même stade, une diminution de la puissance et de la fréquence des oscillations thêta lors du comportement d’exploration a été observée. L’activité interictale, activité paroxystique présente chez les patients entre leurs crises et caractéristique du stade épileptogène dans les modèles animaux, ne corrèle pas directement avec les déficits cognitifs mais diminue la puissance des oscillations thêta dans l’onde après la pointe au cours de l’épileptogenèse mais plus au stade chronique, ce qui suggère une importante modification du réseau avant le stade chronique. On a également décrit deux types d’activité interictale dont les propriétés (amplitude, nombre) et la dynamique au cours du temps sont modifiées juste avant la première crise spontanée, ce qui pourrait constituer, comme les déficits spatiaux et l’altération du rythme thêta, un marqueur prédictif de l’épileptogenèse. De plus, une augmentation du couplage entre l’hippocampe et le CE est observée au cours de l’épileptogenèse mais plus au stade chronique, alors qu’une modification du flux de l’information entre ces deux structures au stade épileptogène précoce persiste jusqu’au stade chronique, indépendamment de la présence ou non d’activité interictale. Ces résultats mettent en évidence la construction d’un réseau épileptogène, un changement majeur du réseau avant la première crise spontanée, et des marqueurs qui pourraient être prédictifs de l’épileptogenèse. L’ELT, les oscillations et les fonctions cognitives faisant intervenir des propriétés de réseau, tels les processus de synchronisation, l’enregistrement de 15 structures au sein du lobe temporal a montré, à partir du modèle pilocarpine, un réseau doté de caractéristiques plus « small-world » (SW) qui tendrait à se synchroniser plus localement, avec une perte des connexions longue distance. Ces résultats pourraient expliquer les altérations de réseau observées précédemment au cours de l’épileptogenèse. L’analyse SW et de cohérence, à l’échelle de ce réseau de structures, lors de différents états (comportementaux, processus cognitifs), mettent en évidence des changements de la dynamique lors de ces états, en conditions normales et pathologiques. Toutes ces modifications de réseau doivent être sûrement recrutées dans la mise en place d’un cerveau épileptique et des altérations cognitives associées. / Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) is the most common form of partial epilepsy in adults. TLE is characterized by a latent period during which TLE takes place. This period is called epileptogenesis. In TLE patients, epileptogenesis is unexplored. However, the use of animal models, like pilocarpine model, allows the study of epileptogenic processes, in order to try to prevent TLE. Thus, my PhD work tries to yield some predictive markers of epileptogenesis, in the pilocarpine model. We studied cognitive and electrophysiological in vivo alterations in this model. We showed that there are early and persistent spatial deficits that correlate with a decrease of the power of theta oscillations, i.e. during the early stage of epileptogenesis and the chronic stage. At the same time, there is also a decrease of power and frequency of theta rhythm during exploratory behaviors. Interictal-like activity (ILA) is a pathological activity present during epileptogenesis in experimental models. ILA does not correlate with cognitive deficits, but decreases theta power after the spike, i.e. in its wave, during epileptogenesis but not during the chronic stage anymore. This suggests an important network alteration before the chronic stage. Indeed, we described two types of ILA, whose properties (number, amplitude) and dynamics evolved during epileptogenesis with a major switch just before the first spontaneous seizure. All together, these results may constitute, with spatial deficits and theta rhythm alterations, predictive markers of epileptogenesis. Moreover, we showed an increase in the coupling, ILA-dependent, between the hippocampus and the entorhinal cortex, during epileptogenesis but not during the chronic stage, whereas a reversal of the information flow between these two structures occurs at the early stage of epileptogenesis and persists without any modification till the chronic stage. These results suggest the build-up of an epileptogenic network, a major switch of network properties just before the first spontaneous seizure, and some markers that could be predictive of epileptogenesis. TLE, oscillations and cognition involved processes at the network level, in particular synchronization processes. These processes could be possible via oscillations, which allow information transfer between structures of the network, in order to provide behavioral and cognitive processing. Recordings performed in 15 different structures of the temporal lobe showed, in pilocarpine animals, a network with more “small-world” (SW) features, with a higher local clustering and a loss of long-range connections. These results could explain cognitive and oscillatory alterations observed previously during epileptogenesis. SW and coherence analysis, at the network level, between signals during different brain-states (behaviors and cognitive processes) showed changes in dynamics occurring during these states, in normal and epileptogenic conditions. All these modifications in network activities may be involved in the construction of an epileptic brain and in associated cognitive deficits.

This dissertation explores the role of brainstem structures in the development and expression of generalized tonic-clonic seizures. The functional consequences of brainstem seizures are investigated using the kindling paradigm in order to understand the behavioral and cognitive effects of generalized seizures. <BR><BR> I begin by investigating the general characteristics of brainstem kindling. The first experiment demonstrates that certain brainstem sites are indeed susceptible to kindling and begins to delineate the features that distinguish brainstem seizures from those evoked at other brain regions. Further investigation of the EEG signal features using wavelet analysis reveals that changes in the spectral properties of the electrographic activity during kindling include significant changes to high-frequency activity and organized low-frequency activity. I also identify transitions that include frequency sweeps and abrupt seizure terminations. The changing spectral features are shown to be critically associated with the evolution of the kindled seizures and may have important functional consequences. The surprising responsiveness of some brainstem structures to kindling forces us to reconsider the overall role of these structures in epileptogenesis as well as in the healthy dynamical functioning of the brain. <BR><BR> In order to study the functional consequences, a series of experiments examines the changes in behavior, cognition and affect that follow these brainstem seizures. Although the results show no effects on spatial learning or memory, there are significant and complex effects on anxiety- and depression-like behavior that appear to be related to motivation. In order to further study the cognitive effects, a second set of behavioral experiments considers how context (i.e., the environment) interacts with the behavioral changes. The results indicate that changes in affect may only be apparent when choice between seizure-related and seizure-free contexts is given, suggesting that the environment and choice can play key roles in the behavioral consequences of seizures. This thesis also includes an appendix that applies synchrotron imaging to investigate the anatomical consequences of electrode implantation in kindling and shows that significantly increased iron depositions occur even with purportedly biocompatible electrodes widely used in research and clinical settings. <BR><BR> Examination of the role of brainstem structures in generalized seizures in this dissertation offers new perspectives and insights to epileptogenesis and the behavioral effects of epilepsy. The changes in EEG features, behavior, affect and motivation observed after brainstem seizures and kindling may have important clinical implications. For example, the results suggest a need to reexamine the concept of psychogenic seizures, a potential connection to Sudden Unexplained Death in Epilepsy (SUDEP), and the contribution of environmental factors. It is hoped that these findings will help elucidate the complex issues involved in understanding and improving the quality of life for people with epilepsy.

This dissertation explores the role of brainstem structures in the development and expression of generalized tonic-clonic seizures. The functional consequences of brainstem seizures are investigated using the kindling paradigm in order to understand the behavioral and cognitive effects of generalized seizures. <BR><BR> I begin by investigating the general characteristics of brainstem kindling. The first experiment demonstrates that certain brainstem sites are indeed susceptible to kindling and begins to delineate the features that distinguish brainstem seizures from those evoked at other brain regions. Further investigation of the EEG signal features using wavelet analysis reveals that changes in the spectral properties of the electrographic activity during kindling include significant changes to high-frequency activity and organized low-frequency activity. I also identify transitions that include frequency sweeps and abrupt seizure terminations. The changing spectral features are shown to be critically associated with the evolution of the kindled seizures and may have important functional consequences. The surprising responsiveness of some brainstem structures to kindling forces us to reconsider the overall role of these structures in epileptogenesis as well as in the healthy dynamical functioning of the brain. <BR><BR> In order to study the functional consequences, a series of experiments examines the changes in behavior, cognition and affect that follow these brainstem seizures. Although the results show no effects on spatial learning or memory, there are significant and complex effects on anxiety- and depression-like behavior that appear to be related to motivation. In order to further study the cognitive effects, a second set of behavioral experiments considers how context (i.e., the environment) interacts with the behavioral changes. The results indicate that changes in affect may only be apparent when choice between seizure-related and seizure-free contexts is given, suggesting that the environment and choice can play key roles in the behavioral consequences of seizures. This thesis also includes an appendix that applies synchrotron imaging to investigate the anatomical consequences of electrode implantation in kindling and shows that significantly increased iron depositions occur even with purportedly biocompatible electrodes widely used in research and clinical settings. <BR><BR> Examination of the role of brainstem structures in generalized seizures in this dissertation offers new perspectives and insights to epileptogenesis and the behavioral effects of epilepsy. The changes in EEG features, behavior, affect and motivation observed after brainstem seizures and kindling may have important clinical implications. For example, the results suggest a need to reexamine the concept of psychogenic seizures, a potential connection to Sudden Unexplained Death in Epilepsy (SUDEP), and the contribution of environmental factors. It is hoped that these findings will help elucidate the complex issues involved in understanding and improving the quality of life for people with epilepsy.

L'épilepsie du lobe temporal (ELT) est la forme la plus fréquente de l'épilepsie chez l'adulte. Elle se traduit par des crises spontanées et récurrentes, qui sont résistantes à tout traitement dans 90% des cas. Une agression initiale du cerveau (traumatisme crânien, méningite, convulsions fébriles etc.), est souvent à l'origine de la transformation d'un cerveau « sain » en cerveau épileptique. L'ensemble des processus responsables de cette transition s'appelle l'épileptogenèse. Pouvoir bloquer et/ou retarder l'épileptogenèse chez les patients à risque est une question de santé majeure. En plus des crises, l'ELT soulève d'autres questions. Elle est souvent associée à des déficits cognitifs, qui sont la conséquence de la réorganisation des circuits neuronaux. Ces déficits pourraient être traités de façon indépendante de l'épilepsie elle-même. Le projet de recherche de cette thèse s'inscrit dans ce cadre général. / Temporal Lobe Epilepsy (TLE) is the most common form of epilepsy in adults. It translates into spontaneous and recurrent seizures, which are resistant to any treatment in 90% of cases. An initial brain insult (head injury, meningitis, febrile seizures etc.), is often the cause of the transformation of a "healthy" brain into an epileptic one. The process responsible for this transition is called epileptogenesis. Blocking and/or delaying epileptogenesis in at-risk patients is a key issue for public health. In addition to the seizures, TLE raises other problems. It is often associated with cognitive deficits, which are the result of the reorganization of neuronal circuits. These deficits may be treated independently of epilepsy itself. The work presented here fits into this general framework.