L'homéostasie glutamatergique dans les fentes synaptiques régule la neurotransmission et préserve de l'excitotoxicité. Cela est particulièrement important dans l'oreille interne où il y a une libération soutenue de neurotransmetteur. Pour la plupart des cellules ciliées cochléaires et vestibulaires, la clairance du glutamate est assurée par les transporteurs du glutamate EAAT1 (GLAST) exprimés par les cellules de soutien. Un tel mécanisme n'est pas possible pour les cellules ciliées vestibulaires de type I car leur terminaison synaptique en calice empêche tout accès à la fente synaptique. Nous avons donc postulé qu'un ou plusieurs transporteurs du glutamate devaient être présents au niveau des cellules ciliées de type I ou du calice ou des deux.Grâce à des enregistrements électrophysiologiques, nous avons démontré qu'un courant anionique induit par le glutamate et bloqué par le DL-TBOA est présent dans les cellules ciliées de type I. Les techniques d'hybridation in situ et d'immunohistochimie ont révélé la présence d'EAAT4 et EAAT5. Ces deux transporteurs du glutamate, qui pourraient êtres à l'origine des courants enregistrés, sont exprimés par les cellules ciliées de type I et de type II. De plus, des expériences de RT-PCR et de microscopie électronique ont confirmé ces résultats et suggéré que ces transporteurs pourraient aussi être exprimés postsynaptiquement par le calice. Ces travaux de thèse montrent qu'EAAT4 et EAAT5, considérés respectivement comme spécifiques des tissus cérébelleux et rétiniens, ont une distribution plus large. Ces résultats posent la question des rôles potentiels de ces transporteurs dans l'homéostasie glutamatergique vestibulaire. / Glutamate homeostasis in synaptic clefts shape neurotransmission and prevent excitotoxicity. This may be particularly important in the inner ear where there is a continually high rate of neurotransmitter release. In the case of most cochlear and vestibular hair cells, clearance involves the diffusion of glutamate to supporting cells, where it is taken up by EAAT1 (GLAST), a glial glutamate transporter. A similar mechanism is unlikely to work in vestibular type I hair cells because the presence of calyx endings separates supporting cells from the synaptic zone. Based on this arrangement, we postulated that a glutamate transporter must be present in the type I hair cell, the calyx ending, or both. Using whole-cell patch-clamp recordings, we demonstrated that a glutamate-activated anion current blocked by DL-TBOA is expressed in type I hair cells. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry revealed that EAAT4 and EAAT5, two glutamate transporters that could support the anion current, are expressed in both type I and type II hair cells. Furthermore, RT-PCR and immunogold investigations confirmed those results and added that although preferentially expressed presynaptically, the transporters may also be present in the postsynaptic calyx membrane. Previously thought to be exclusively expressed in the cerebellum and retina respectively, this thesis work shows that EAAT4 and EAAT5 have a wider distribution. The potential role of these transporters in the glutamatergic homeostasis of the calyx synapse is then discussed.

No description available.

Die Entwicklung neuer Medikamente und Therapieverfahren wie die Hochdosischemotherapie und die Möglichkeit der Stammzelletransplantation haben die Heilungschance krebskranker Kinder in den letzen Jahrzehnten enorm verbessert. Aus diesem Grund erlangt die Berücksichtigung der Spätfolgen der Therapie eine größere Bedeutung. Es wurden die Zytostatika Cyclophosphamid und Thiotepa auf ihre Neurotoxizität im infantilen Rattengehirn untersucht. Dazu wurde Ratten im Alter von 7, 14, 21 oder 28 Tagen Cyclophosphamid (200-600mg/kg) oder Thiotepa (15-45 mg/kg) intraperitoneal injiziert. Nach einer Überlebenszeit von 4-24 Stunden wurden die Tiere getötet. Die Dichte degenerierter Zellen wurde lichtmikroskopisch in den nach De Olmos gefärbten Hirnschnitten mit Hilfe des stereologischen Dissektors ermittelt. Weiterhin wurden eine TUNEL-Färbung, elektronenmikroskopische sowie eine immunhistochemische Untersuchung für Caspase 3 und den Fas Rezeptor durchgeführt. Die Unterschiede zwischen den einzelnen Versuchsgruppen wurde mit Hilfe des Student`s t-Test auf ihre Signifikanz hin überprüft. Die Untersuchungen zur Zeit und Dosisabhängigkeit wurde mit Hilfe der ermittelten Gesamtscores und der Varianzanalyse (ANOVA) überprüft. Diese Untersuchung zeigte, dass eine Exposition mit den Zytostatika Cyclophosphamid und Thiotepa altersabhängig zu ausgeprägten Zellschädigungen im Gehirn führt. Besonders ausgeprägte Zelluntergänge fanden sich im Cortex, den thalamischen Kerngebieten, und dem Hippocampus. Ultrastrukturell ließen sich bereits kurz nach der Applikation des Zytostatikums anschwellende Dendriten als Hinweis auf einen exzitotoxischen Zelltodmechanismus nachweisen. Im Gegensatz dazu zeigten sich bei Tieren mit längerer Lebensdauer nach Exposition gegenüber dem Zytostatikum typische ultrastrukturelle Veränderungen wie man sie bei apoptotischem Zelltod finden kann. Mit dieser Untersuchung konnte gezeigt werden, dass die neurotoxische Wirkung der Zytostatika Cyclophosphamid und Thiotepa eine exzitotoxische und eine apoptotische Komponente aufweist. / Survival rates for children with cancer have increased dramatically over the past few decades. The expanded use of older agents, the development of new chemotherapeutic agents, the introduction of high dose chemotherapy and stem cell transplantation regimen have had a major impact on this improvement. These positive results have also focused increased attention on post-therapeutic effects of anticancer drugs. To investigate whether common cytotoxic drugs cause neurotoxic effects in the developing rat brain the following alkylated agents were administered to 7-day-old rats: cyclophosphamide (200–600mg/kg IP) and thiotepa (15– 45mg/kg IP). The brains were analysed at 4 to 24 hours. Quantitation of brain damage was performed in De Olmos cupric silver-stained sections using the stereological dissector method. Furthermore electron microscopy on plastic sections, TUNEL staining and immunohistochemistry for activated caspase 3 and Fas receptor was performed. Statistical analysis was performed by means of Student´s t test or one-way analysis of variance with subsequent pairwise comparison (Scheffé-test). Cytotoxic drugs produced widespread lesions within cortex, thalamus, hippocampal dentate gyrus, and caudate nucleus in a dose-dependent fashion. Early histological analysis demonstrated dendritic swelling and relative preservation of axonal terminals, which are morphological features indicating excitotoxicity. After longer survival periods, degenerating neurons displayed morphological features consistent with active cell death. These results demonstrate that anticancer drugs are potent neurotoxins in vivo; they activate excitotoxic mechanisms but also trigger active neuronal death.

La Sclérose Latérale Amyotrophique (SLA) est une maladie neurodégénérative au cours de laquelle les motoneurones meurent. Le premier dysfonctionnement des motoneurones est la rétractation de leurs jonctions neuromusculaires. La présence de vacuoles a été décrite dans l’axone et les dendrites des motoneurones avant la dénervation dans les souris SOD1G93A, modèle murin de la maladie. L’origine des vacuoles n’est pas connue. On peut toutefois se demander si elle pourrait résulter d’un stress excitotoxique. L’excitotoxicité pourrait provenir soit d’une hyperexcitabilité intrinsèque du motoneurone, soit d’une hyperexcitation (balance des entrées excitatrices et inhibitrices modifiées au profit d’une plus grande excitation). Or il a été montré que si les motoneurones sont hyperexcitables au stade embryonnaire dans les souris SOD1G93A, seuls les motoneurones résistants à la SLA (type S) sont hyperexcitables à la deuxième semaine postnatale tandis que les motoneurones vulnérables (types FF et FR) deviennent hypoexcitables avant leur dégénérescence chez l’adulte. Nous avons donc étudié les entrées synaptiques reçues par les motoneurones, pour savoir si la balance excitation/inhibition est déplacée et s’ils sont ainsi hyperexcités. Pour cela nous avons réalisé des enregistrements électrophysiologiques de motoneurones lors de la stimulation de circuits pré-moteurs, et des marquages intracellulaires de motoneurones combinés avec des marquages immunohistochimiques des boutons VGlut1, VGlut2 et Vgat. Nous avons montré que l’amplitude des PPSE monosynaptiques Ia était diminuée dans les souris SOD1, les PPSI di- et trisynaptiques étaient moins nombreux et les interneurones inhibiteurs moins excitables. Cette modification des entrées synaptiques n’était pas due à un changement du nombre de synapses. En revanche, les synapses sont particulièrement nombreuses aux domaines dendritiques qui se vacuolisent dans les souris SOD1, suggérant un lien entre l’activité synaptique et la vacuolisation. Des marquages intracellulaires de motoneurones de souris SOD1, montrent que les vacuoles grandissent avec l’évolution de la maladie, suggérant leur implication dans le processus de dégénération. Grâce à des révélations immunohistochimiques, nous avons montré que ces vacuoles apparaissent dans l’espace intermitochondrial lors de la dégénérescence des mitochondries. Le réticulum endoplasmique est également impliqué. Enfin, l’autophagie, mécanisme d’élimination des organites cellulaires, est déficient au moment de l’apparition des vacuoles, expliquant pourquoi elles s’accumulent avec le temps. Ces résultats amènent à reconsidérer l’hypothèse de l’excitotoxicité supposée comme mécanisme à l’origine de la mort des motoneurones. / Glutamate excitotoxicity arising from excessive entry of calcium in the cell, has long been suggested to contribute to the degeneration of motoneurons in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). This hypothesis is enhanced by the observation of vacuoles on motoneurones dendritic tree. Such vacuoles were previously observed on neurons under excitotoxic stress. Excitotoxicity may stem from an intrinsic hyperexcitability of the motoneurons or from a shift of the balance of excitatory / inhibitory inputs received by the motoneurons toward more excitation. Thanks to an in vivo preparation that allows us to make intracellular recordings of motoneurons in adult mice, it was shown that spinal motoneurons do not display an intrinsic hyperexcitability just prior to their degeneration in SOD1 G93A mice, the standard model of ALS. Thus, to study excitotoxicity hypothesis, we decided to study dendritic vacuoles and undersand their genesis, and then to study synaptic inputs on motoneurons, to decipher if there is a hyperexcitability. We have shown, with intracellular labelling and immunohistochemistry, that vacuoles grow with age, that they appear in the intermembrane space of mitochondria, and that deficiency in autophagy prevent their elimination. With electrophysiological recordings, we have shown that monosynaptic EPSP amplitude is reduced in SOD1 mice. IPSP were less numerous and inhibitory interneurons were less excitable. These alterations were not due to synapses numbers, however synapses are preferentially localised on dendritic places that vacuolate, suggesting a link between synaptic activity and vacuolation. These results suggest that excitotoxicity might not be the mecanism of motoneuron death.

O L-glutamato (L-Glu) é o principal neurotransmissor excitatório em vertebrados e é fundamental para funções primordiais do sistema nervoso central (SNC), tais como aprendizagem e memória. Entretanto, quando este neurotransmissor está em excesso na fenda sináptica, pode provocar uma série de eventos excitotóxicos, que por sua vez, estão associados a muitas neuropatologias. A terapia da maioria dessas doenças é ineficiente e provoca sérios efeitos colaterais. Portanto, é necessário desenvolver fármacos mais efetivos e com menos efeitos colaterais. Assim, peçonhas de artrópodes como a da aranha P. bistriata, se apresentam como fontes alternativas de compostos neuroativos, pois já demonstraram efeitos neuroprotetores in vitro e in vivo, bem como anticonvulsivos. Destarte, o objetivo deste estudo foi investigar um possível efeito neuroprotetor da fração RT10, isolada da peçonha de P.bistriata, em cultura primária de neurônios e glia (CPNGs), do tecido nervoso de ratos recém-nascidos, expostos a concentrações tóxicas de L-Glu (5 mM). As CPNGs foram tratadas durante 3 horas, previamente à lesão, que foi feita por um período de 12h. Ambas as exposições (tratamento e lesão) foram conduzidas no 7.º dia in vitro (DIV). Para analisar quantitativamente e qualitativamente os efeitos dos tratamentos, bem como demonstrar a composição das CPNGs foram realizados ensaios de viabilidade celular, com o sal sódico de resazurina (SSR) e, imunomarcações com anticorpos primários para MAP2, NeuN e GFAP. A fração RT10 foi neuroprotetora, pois diminuiu a perda celular nos testes com o SSR em 10%, nas CPNGs, expostas ao L-Glu, além de apresentarem efeito maior (5%), que o do fármaco Riluzol (RIL). A neuroproteção da RT10 também foi observada nos ensaios de imunocitoquimica. Os neurônios tratados com RT10 e RIL, que foram marcados com anti-MAP2 tiveram maior prolongamentos dos dendritos em relação aos neurônios não tratados. Portanto, a intensidade da fluorescência de anti-MAP2 para os neurônios tratados com esta fração foi 38% maior em relação aos não tratados; e 21% maior quando comparados ao grupo RIL. Deste modo, podemos considerar a RT10, como uma ferramenta para a prospecção de novos fármacos contra neurodegenerações, in vitro e principalmente estudos de mecanismo de ação, cujas variáveis podem ser mais bem controladas. / L-Glutamate (L-Glu), the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system of vertebrates, is essential to the occurrence of cognitive functions. However, when L-Glu is over-accumulated in a synaptic cleft it can provoke excitotoxicity (EXT), which has been implicated in many neurological disorders (NDs). The current therapies against NDs are undereffective and can provoke side effects, so it is necessary to develop new treatments. In this regard, neuroactive compounds obtained from Parawixia bistriata spider venom are an alternative source of neuroactive compounds, because they showed neuroprotective effects in vitro and in vivo. Thus, the main aim of this work was to evaluate a possible neuroprotective effect of RT10 fraction obtained from P. bistriata venom in primary culture of neuron and glial cells (PCNGCs) from cerebral tissue of newborn Wistar rats, after the exposition to L-glu toxic concentration (5mM). The PCNGCs were submitted to the neuroprotection treatments for 3 hours and previously to the neurotoxic treatment, which the L-glu stayed for 12h in the PNGCs. The both expositions were conducted on the 7th day in vitro (DIV). The Resazurin sodium salt (RSS) and immunocytochemistry (MAP2, NeuN e GFAP primary antibodies) trials were utilized to measure quantitatively and qualitatively the treatments, as well as to prove the culture composition. In the RSS trial, the RT10 was neuroprotector, since avoided the cell death in 10%, under the PCNGCs which were exposed to L-Glu. in addition, RT10 demonstrated higher effect than rilozole (5%). RT10 attenuated the toxic effects of L-Glu under the neuromorphology, consequently the fluorescence intensity of MAP2 at PCNGC treated with RT10 was 38% higher than untreated group and it was 21% higher than riluzole group. Thus, we can consider that RT10 compounds are valuable tools to the prospection of new drugs against NDs.

骨形成蛋白 (bone morphogenetic proteins, BMPs) 屬於TGF家族的成員，過去的研究指出BMPs對神經系統的發育及維持非常的重要，並且會參與調控突觸的形成。然而，在哺乳類動物的研究中，BMPs在神經肌肉系統中所調控的生理功能仍未完全了解。本實驗室初步的研究資料顯示BMPs的type II受體 (bone morphogenetic protein type II receptor, BMPRII) 會表現在神經與肌肉接合處 (neuromuscular junction, NMJ) ，而從本論文中的免疫染色實驗結果觀察到骨形成蛋白-4 (BMP4) 會表現在肌肉及許旺細胞上，且BMP4與乙醯膽鹼受體 (acetylcholine receptors, AChRs) 有colocalization的現象。由double nerve ligations的實驗觀察到BMP4會堆積在打結處的兩端，顯示BMP4可能是由肌肉或許旺細胞分泌後送進運動神經元之軸突內運輸，其方向為雙向性運輸，而利用Q-PCR mRNA定量實驗發現BMP4 mRNA在double-ligated之坐骨神經中表現量下降，但在肌肉中表現量則顯著增加。 由上述實驗顯示肌肉細胞為BMP4主要來源之ㄧ，利用NG108-15神經細胞及C2C12肌肉細胞培養，我們發現BMP4 mRNA在C2C12肌小管上有高度表現，相反地在分化後的NG108-15神經細胞上表現量極少，而BMP4的mRNA及protein在C2C12肌肉上的表現量則受到神經衍生蛋白Agrin的調控。此外我們亦發現來自於肌肉的BMP4則會保護分化後的NG108-15神經細胞對抗Glutamate所誘導的細胞死亡反應。綜合這些結果，我們認為BMP4主要來自於運動神經元之周邊的肌肉及許旺細胞，其可能會參與調控運動神經元的存活機制。 / Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), members of the TGF superfamily, have been shown to play important roles in the development of nervous system including neuronal survival and synaptogenesis. However, the physiological functions of BMP signaling at the mammalian neuromuscular system are not well understood. Our preliminary data showed that proteins of the type II bone morphogenetic receptors (BMPRII) were specifically expressed in nerve terminals at neuromuscular junctions. In this study, we found that proteins of bone morphogenetic protein-4 (BMP4) were detected at Schwann cells and colocalized with postsynaptic acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) in skeletal muscle fibers. In double-ligated nerves, BMP4 proteins were accumulated at the proximal and distal portions of the axons, suggesting that Schwann cell- and muscle fiber-derived BMP4 proteins were anterogradely and retrogradely transported by motor neurons. Additionally, BMP4 mRNA was significantly up-regulated in the muscle but down-regulated in ligated sciatic nerves. The physiological functions of BMP4 in the neuromuscular system were further examined in vitro. We found that mRNA of BMP4 was highly expressed in differentiated C2C12 muscle cells, but it was barely detectable in NG108-5 neurons. The expression of BMP4 mRNA and protein in C2C12 muscle cells were upregulated when the motor neuron-derived factor, agrin, was presented in the culture. Moreover, muscle-derived BMP4 could protect NG108-5 neurons from glutamate-induced excitotoxicity. These results together suggest that BMP4 is a peripheral-derived factor that may regulate the survival of motor neurons.

Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit dem Einfluss der NMDA-Rezeptorantagonisten, Memantin, MK-801, CGS und Ifenprodil auf die hypoxieinduzierte Zellschädigung an kortikalen Zellen der Ratte. Außerdem wurde der Einfluss von subtoxischen Konzentrationen von NMDA sowie von Roscovitin, einem Hemmer Cyclin-abhängiger Kinasen, auf die hypoxiebedingte Zellschädigung untersucht. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die neuroprotektive Wirkung dieser Substanzen zu erfassen. Zur Untersuchung der hypoxischen Schädigung wurden zwei 48-Well-Zellkulturplatten mit 15 Tage alten kortikalen Zellen der Ratte verwendet. Eine Kulturplatte wurde für vier Stunden mit HEPES(N-2-Hydroxyethylpiperazine-N’-2-Ethansulfonsäure)-Puffer (ohne Glucose) unter hypoxischen Bedingungen inkubiert. Die zweite Platte, mit glukorisiertem HEPES-Puffer, wurde für vier Stunden unter normoxischen Bedingungen inkubiert. Der HEPES-Puffer wurde nach vier Stunden entfernt, die Kulturplatten mit Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) gewaschen und mit diesem Medium für 24 Stunden unter normoxischen Bedingungen inkubiert. Anschließend wurde das Medium ent¬fernt, durch NMDA, Memantin, Roscovitin, CGS und Ifenprodil ersetzt und die Ansätze für weitere 24 Stunden unter normoxischen Bedingungen inkubiert. Zur Beurteilung der Zellschädigung wurden der Aktivitätsanstieg der Laktat-Dehydrogenase (LDH), die Freisetzung freier Sauerstoffradikale und die Steigerung der Caspase-Aktivität bestimmt. Während die Bestimmung der LDH-Aktivität und die Freisetzung der freien Sauer¬stoff¬radikale nekrotische Veränderungen der Zellen charakterisiert, zeigt eine Zunahme der Caspase-Aktivität apoptotische Vorgänge an. LDH ist ein stabiles zytoplasmatisches Enzym, das in fast allen Körperzellen vorkommt. Beim Absterben der Zelle wird das Enzym durch die Schädigung der Plasmamembran aus der Zelle freigesetzt, so dass es zu einem Anstieg der LDH-Aktivität proportional zur Anzahl der toten Zellen kommt. Diese Aktivität wurde spektrophotometrisch mit einem Mikrotiterplatten-Lesegerät bestimmt. Die Ergebnisse des LDH-Tests zeigen, dass nach der 24-stündigen Behandlung der Zellen mit MK-801 die LDH-Aktivität um 11%, bei Roscovitin um 13%, bei Memantin (5 µM) um 56%, bei Memantin (0,5 µM) um 52% und mit NMDA (5 µM) um 44% signifikant vermindert wurde. Bei einer hypoxiebedingten Schädigung kortikaler Zellen kommt es auch zur Bildung freier Sauer¬stoff¬radikale. 2’,7’-Dichlorfluorescein Diacetat (2’,7’-H2DCF-DA) wird von den Zellen auf¬ge¬nommen und intrazellulär mit Sauerstoff- und Stickstoffspezies zum Fluoreszenz¬farb-stoff 2’,7’-Dichlorodihydrofluorescein (DCF) deacetyliert. DCF verbleibt dabei in den Zellen, so dass die Messung der Fluoreszenz der Zellen als Maß für intrazelluläre Oxidationsprozesse verwendet werden kann. Die DCF-Fluoreszenz-Änderung wurde mittels eines Fluorimeters gemessen und die daraus resultierenden Daten mit einer im Fluorimeter integrierten Software bearbeitet. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Freisetzung der freien Sauerstoffradikale, der hypoxiegeschädigten Zellen, signifikant durch Ifenprodil (10 µM) um 119%, Memantin (50 µM) um 88% und NMDA (5 µM) um 134% reduziert wurde. Die hypoxieinduzierte Zellmembranschädigung führt desweiteren zu einem Anstieg der Caspase-Aktivität. Mit Hilfe des Apo-One Homogeneous Caspase-3/7-Assays (Promega) wurde die Aktivität der Caspasen 3 und 7 fluorimetrisch bestimmt. Um die unterschiedliche Zelldichte in den Kulturschalen zu berücksichtigen, wurde eine Proteinbestimmung nach der Bicinchoninsäure-Methode (Smith et al. 1985) durchgeführt. Einen protektiven Effekt auf die Zellschädigung zeigen Memantin und NMDA in Bezug auf die Beeinflussung dieser Caspase-Aktivität. Der hypoxiebedingte Anstieg der Caspase-3-Aktivität konnte nach 24-stündiger Inkubation mit Memantin (5 µM) um 24%, mit Memantin (0,5 µM) um 28% und mit NMDA (5 µM) um 24% vermindert werden. CGS hat in diesen Versuchen keinen protektiven Einfluss auf die hypoxie¬induzierte Zellschädigung. Diese Arbeit zeigt, dass die Applikation niedriger NMDA-Konzentrationen neuroprotektive Effekte auf die Entwicklung der hypoxischen Schädigung von kortikalen Zellen der Ratte hat. Darüber hinaus wird vermutet, dass NMDA sogar einen trophischen Effekt auf das Über-leben der kortikalen Neurone ausübt. Dieser schützende Mechanismus von NMDA scheint denselben, wenn nicht sogar einen größeren protektiven Effekt wie Memantin zu induzieren. Um die Therapiemöglichkeiten der zerebralen Hypoxie durch neuroprotektive Medikamente zu optimieren, wären jedoch weitergehende Untersuchungen besonders als In-vivo-Modelle wünschenswert.

Ischemic stroke occurs as a result of a lack or severe reduction of blood supply to the brain. Presently therapeutic interventions are limited and there is a need to develop new and efficacious stroke treatments. To this end, a great deal of research effort has been devoted to studying the potential molecular mechanisms involved in ischemic neuronal death. Correlative evidence demonstrated a paradoxical activation of the cell cycle machinery in ischemic neurons. The levels and activity of key cell cycle regulators including cyclin D1, Cdk2 and Cdk4 are upregulated following ischemic insults. However, the functional relevance of these various signals following ischemic injury was unclear. Accordingly, the research described in this thesis address the functional relevance of the activation of the cell cycle machinery in ischemic neuronal death. The data indicate that the inhibition of Cdk4 protects neurons from ischemia-induced delayed death, whereas abrogation of Cdk5 activity prevents excitotoxicity-induced damage in vitro and in vivo. Examination of upstream activators of mitotic-Cdks showed that Cdc25A is a critical mediator of delayed ischemic neuronal death. Investigation of the potential molecular mechanism by which cell cycle regulators induced neuronal death revealed perturbations in the levels and activity of key downstream targets of Cdk4. The retinoblastoma protein family members, pRb and p130 are increasingly phosphorylated following ischemic stresses. Importantly, p130 and E2F4 proteins are drastically reduced following ischemic insults. Additionally, E2F1 association with promoters of pro-apoptotic genes are induced while that of E2F4 is reduced. These changes appear to be important determinants in ischemic neuronal death. Cumulatively, the data supports the activation of the cell cycle machinery as a pathogenic signal contributing to ischemic neuronal death. The development of neuroprotectant strategies for stroke has been hampered in part by its complex pathophysiology. Previous research indicated that flavopiridol, a general CDK-inhibitor, is unable to provide sustained neuroprotection beyond one week following cerebral ischemia. The potential benefit of combining flavopiridol with another neuroprotectant, minocycline, was explored. The data indicate that while this approach provided histological protection 10 weeks after insult, the protected neurons are not functional due to progressive dendritic degeneration. This evidence indicates that targeting cell cycle pathways in stroke while important must be combined with other therapeutic modalities to fully treat stroke-induced damage.

Doctor Pharmaceuticae - Dpharm / Among neurological disorders, many of the most devastating disorders are neurodegenerative. Modern research associates excitotoxicity to a variety of neuropathological conditions, suggesting that the neurodegenerative diseases with distinct etiologies may have excitotoxicity as a common pathway. Excitotoxicity occurs through over-stimulation of receptors for excitatory neurotransmitters like the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors. Due to the relevance of NMDA receptors and excitotoxic processes, the antagonism or modulation of NMDA receptors is used as a therapeutic tool against neurodegenerative diseases. NMDA receptor activity can be modulated by S-nitrosylation and this modulation of NMDA receptor activity can be utilised in the development of neuroprotective drugs.

A tentativa de compreender as consequências do tratamento precoce crônico com metilfenidato é muito importante uma vez que este psicoestimulante tem sido amplamente utilizado em crianças de idade pré-escolar. Além disso, pouco se sabe sobre os mecanismos envolvidos nas alterações persistentes no comportamento e no funcionamento neuronal associada à sua utilização. Neste estudo, nós inicialmente investigamos o efeito do tratamento precoce crônico com metilfenidato sobre o perfil de aminoácidos no líquido cefalorraquidiano. Além disso, foram também avaliados a homeostase glutamatérgica, a Na+,K+-ATPase e o equilíbrio redox no córtex pré-frontal de ratos jovens. Ratos Wistar receberam injeções intraperitoneais de metilfenidato (2,0 mg/kg) ou um volume equivalente de solução salina 0,9% (controles), uma vez por dia, do 15º ao 45º dia de vida. Vinte e quatro horas após a última administração de metilfenidato, os animais foram decapitados e o líquido cefalorraquidiano e o córtex pré-frontal foram obtidos e processados conforme o protocolo para cada uma das análises. Os resultados mostraram que o metilfenidato alterou o perfil de aminoácidos no líquido cefalorraquidiano, aumentando os níveis de glutamato. A captação de glutamato foi diminuída pelo tratamento crônico com metilfenidato, mas o conteúdo dos transportadores, GLAST e GLT-1, não foram alterados por esse tratamento. A atividade e o imunoconteúdo das subunidades catalíticas (α1, α2 e α3) da Na+,K+-ATPase foram diminuídos em córtex pré-frontal de ratos submetidos ao metilfenidato. Alterações na expressão gênica das subunidades α1 e α2 da Na+,K+-ATPase também foram observadas. O conteúdo de sulfidrilas, um marcador inversamente correlacionado com dano proteíco, foi diminuído. A atividade da CAT foi aumentada e a razão SOD/CAT foi diminuída em córtex pré-frontal de ratos. Os demais parâmetros avaliados não apresentaram diferenças significativas quando comparado aos controles. Os nossos resultados, tomados em conjunto, sugerem que o tratamento precoce crônico com metilfenidato promove excitotoxicidade devido, pelo menos em parte, à inibição da captação de glutamato provavelmente causada por perturbações na função da Na+,K+-ATPase e/ou pelo dano à proteína observados no córtex pré-frontal. Esses achados podem contribuir, pelo menos em parte, para uma melhor compreensão dos mecanismos envolvidos nas alterações bioquímicas e comportamentais associadas ao uso crônico de metilfenidato durante o desenvolvimento do sistema nervoso central. / Understanding the consequences of chronic treatment with methylphenidate is very important since this psychostimulant is extensively in preschool age children. Additionaly to this, little is known about the mechanisms involved in persistent changes in behavior and neuronal function related with use of methylphenidate. In this study, we initially investigate the effect of chronic treatment with methylphenidate in juvenile rats on the amino acids profile in cerebrospinal fluid, as well as on glutamatergic homeostasis, Na+,K+-ATPase function and redox balance in prefrontal cortex. Wistar rats at early age received intraperitoneal injections of methylphenidate (2.0 mg/kg) or an equivalent volume of 0.9% saline solution (controls), once a day, from the 15th to the 45th day of life. Twenty-four hours after the last administration of methylphenidate, the animals were decapitated and the cerebrospinal fluid and the prefrontal cortex were obtained and processed according to the protocol for each analysis. Our results showed that methylphenidate altered amino acid profile in cerebrospinal fluid, increasing the levels of glutamate. In the prefrontal cortex, methylphenidate administration was able to decrease the glutamate uptake, with no changes in GLAST and GLT-1; and the activity and immunocontent of catalytic subunits (α1, α2 and α3) of Na+,K+-ATPase. We also observe changes in α1 and α2 gene expression of catalytic α subunits of Na+,K+-ATPase, decrease in sulfhydryl content, CAT activity and SOD/CAT ratio in juvenile rat prefrontal cortex treated with methylphenidate. Taken together, our results suggest that chronic treatment with methylphenidate at early age induces excitotoxicity, at least in part, due to inhibition of glutamate uptake probably caused by disturbances in the Na+,K+-ATPase function and/or protein damage observed in the prefrontal cortex. These findings may contribute, at least in part, to a better understanding of mechanisms involved in the biochemical and behavioral changes associated with chronic use of methylphenidate during the development of the central nervous system.