For over a century, corporations engaged in the extractive industries in Africa have operated without ethical rules. They have been notoriously fingered for rampant environmental, labour, health and human rights violations, including land despoliation, forced displacement, environmental pollution, cultural infringements and, sometimes, deaths. While the responsibility for regulating companies and protecting human and peoples’ rights primarily rests with states, they have often been unable or unwilling to do so effectively. Amidst these persisting challenges, the phenomenal rise of transnational corporations in the global economy have rendered more complex the gaps in global governance by presenting new challenges that make territorial regulation by single countries impracticable. While victims groan, contestations about the human rights obligations of corporations have allowed extractive and other companies to fly below the radar of accountability; thereby, enabling extractive businesses to ride roughshod over communities and the environment. After several United Nations-led initiatives to address the adverse impacts of corporations, they have proven insufficient to hold companies accountable for violations in the extractive sector. This thesis, therefore, is a dispassionate attempt to explore the role of the African regional human rights system as an important complementary level of normative and institutional governance for regulating abusive corporate conduct and advancing human rights accountability in the extractive industries. It adopts an African approach to corporate human rights accountability in critically evaluating the contours of the corporate accountability discourse. It problematises the near-total reliance on inadequate domestic action in host states for regulating powerful corporate conglomerates in this age of globalisation and highlights the limits of extraterritorial regulation by home states in addressing transborder abuses. After a careful assessment, it finds that African human rights norms and regional mechanisms can play a key part in regulating abusive corporate practices and protecting the human rights and environmental wellbeing of resource-rich communities affected by the extractive industries in Africa. / Thesis (LLD)--University of Pretoria, 2021. / German Academic Exchange Service (Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst - DAAD) / Centre for Human Rights / LLD / Unrestricted

Increased use of renewable energy sources in the generation of electricity isa crucial component of transitioning to a less polluting energy system in the United States. Technologies like solar photovoltaic cells and wind turbines are being deployed at a rapid rate around the country, which means that an increasing portion of the public is becoming aware of renewable energy systems. The construction of these new industrial facilities has resulted in a variety of public reactions, positive and negative. Citizen opposition has been widely observed toward a variety of renewable energy facilities, and citizen groups can influence policy-making at the national, state,and local levels. Further research is needed to understand under what circumstances the public may take oppositional stances. To examine this topic, I analyze public perceptions of renewable energy using three different datasets. First, I used data from a survey conducted in 2014 in five communities in Utah, Wyoming, and Idaho experiencing renewable energy development(n=906). This dataset allowed me to untangle what factors help explain both individual as well as community-level variation in support for renewable energy. Second, I employed nationally representative survey data (n=13, 322)collected from 2008 to 2015 to examine the influence of a number of factors hypothesized to shape individuals’ level of support for renewable energy policies including socio-demographic characteristics, political beliefs, belief in anthropogenic climate change, and nearby extractive industry activities. Last, I analyzed discourse about renewable energy in sixty-one semi-structured interviews with individuals representing various community sectors in three energy-producing rural communities in Utah. My research findings, on a whole, suggest that several place-based factors are significant in shaping public opinion about renewable energy, including community experience with renewable energy and local economic reliance on extractive industries. I also find pervasive climate skepticism across study sites. These findings indicate the need for broad-based and non-partisan discursive frames for renewable energy. Last, these findings speak to the importance of the ‘just transitions’ concepts, and the need to incorporate those communities most marginalized by the current system of fossil fuels extraction and production as society moves forward toward a cleaner energy economy.

As Africa's largest economy and its most populous country, over a decade of rapid economic growth in Nigeria contributed to the 'Africa Rising' narrative. However, like many African commodity exporters, this economic growth, billions of dollars in oil earnings and electoral democracy have not translated into a diversified and industrial economy. This study examines why the Nigerian economy remains so dependent on oil and is non-industrial, which I argue are economic and development outcomes of specific policy choices constrained by Nigeria's institutional configuration or the political settlement. In this endeavour, my central preoccupation is with the political processes of decision making which at any point in time favour one policy choice over the other in resource-rich and plural societies such as Nigeria, and the economic and development outcomes of these policy choices. I employ the political settlements analytical framework to unveil these political processes and the conditions they create in which certain policies are preferred over others. This entails an examination of the causal relationship within the three variables of 'constraints', 'policies' and 'economic and development outcomes'. I argue that understanding Nigeria's challenges of economic diversification requires an examination of its political settlement to identify horizontal (elite competition), vertical (societal agitations for resource redistribution) and external (oil shocks) constraints on a ruling coalition, and the specific economic policy responses each constraint generates. Essentially, my research explains how policy makers are constrained to pursue certain courses of action over others, and the outcomes of these policies on economic growth and the structural transformation of production, exports and government revenue. In the Nigerian context, the study also examines how sub-national and regional differentiation in the distribution of growth in states like Lagos and Kano affect future political processes and their policy outcomes. The thesis draws from multiple data sources, including economic data, semi-structured interviews with various stakeholders, documentary sources, and participant and non-participant observation.

The present article discusses the way we approach the process of change in rural communities with active presence of extractive industries. As an example, it presents a study about a peasant community from the Peruvian northern coast where a petroleum extraction project is being developed. The case analysis suggests that, in such contexts, different and conflicting patterns of resource, such as land usage, valuation, access and appropriation are configured, leading to a very complex scenario for the decision making process about the future of these resources. The article thus states that categories such as social-environmental management, conflict resolution, and negotiation can lead to a simplified interpretation of reality. In this sense, by presenting some critical issues, it argues the importance of adopting anthropological and sociological approaches in order to consider the way spatiality and temporality are being conceived, as well as to integrate the historical process of land appropriation into the analysis. / El presente artículo propone una reflexión sobre la manera en que se abordan los procesos de cambio que atraviesan las comunidades rurales con presencia de industrias extractivas. Tomando como  ejemplo  el caso de una comunidad campesina de la costa norte peruana en cuyo territorio se desarrolla un proyecto petrolero, el texto plantea que en estos ámbitos se encuentran y enfrentan lógicas distintas de usos, valoraciones, apropiación y acceso a los recursos –la tierra en este caso particular–, que configuran un complejo escenario para la toma de decisiones sobre el futuro de estos. Y que categorías como las de gestión socioambiental, resolución de conflictos o negociación, llevan a una interpretación que simplifica la realidad. En ese sentido, el artículo expone algunos puntos críticos para mostrar la necesidad de abordar estos procesos de cambio desde un enfoque antropológico y  sociológico,  que  tome  en  cuenta las distintas espacialidades y temporalidades, así como los procesos históricos de apropiación del territorio, que dichas categorías no permiten aprehender en toda su dimensión.

This paper does a profound description of the legal framework and its recent modifications related to the State’s use of force in socio-environmental conflicts. This analysis emphasizes in law’s violent nature as a theoretic approach that intends on showing the way that the legal system, instead of defending rights, violates them. The methodology is dogmatic when analyzing law and other legal documents, and interdisciplinary when comparing laws with evidence gathered in interviews, participant observation, documents and databases. The objective its to characterize critically the complex legal framework that articulates the politics that leads to the criminalization of social protests against extractive industries in Peru. / El artículo hace una descripción profunda del marco normativo y sus modificaciones recientes con relación al uso de la fuerza estatal en conflictos socioambientales. Pone énfasis en la naturaleza violenta del derecho como enfoque teórico e intenta mostrar de qué manera el sistema jurídico, antes que garante, es productor de violaciones a los derechos humanos. La metodología empleada es, por un lado, dogmática cuando analiza normas y otros documentos legales y, por otro, interdisciplinaria cuando compara leyes con evidencia recogida en entrevistas, observación participante, documentos y bases de datos. El objetivo es caracterizar críticamente el complejo entramado legal que articula la política de criminalización de las protestas sociales contra industrias extractivas en el Perú.

The article begins by asking «How to overcome environmental conflicts?» To answer this question the article presents a characterization of the elements involved in environmental conflicts in the extractive industries. The article reviews our conception of law and the contribution of the human rights approach. With this foundation, the article presents the development of legislative and institutional framework governing environmental and social aspects in Peru.The article proposes alternatives for positive socio-environmental conflict’s transformationin the view of the approach of human rights. This can be achieved by promoting principles of environmental law and environmental management tools, also regulating negative impactsover social and cultural issues, promoting environmental justice, respecting indigenous peoples and citizen participation in granting administrative rights over natural resources.Finally, the article recounts the contribution of the Law on Prior Consultation to Indigenous Peoples and its impact on the participation of these communities in law and administrative processes related to the management of natural resources. / El artículo parte por preguntarse «¿Cómo superar los conflictos socioambientales?» Para responder ésta pregunta, se aborda una caracterización de los elementos involucrados en los conflictos socioambientales alrededor de las industrias extractivas; luego se revisa nuestra concepción de lo legal y el aporte del desarrollo del enfoque de los Derechos Humanos. A partir de éste marco se revisa el desarrollo del marco legislativo e institucional que regula los aspectos ambientales y sociales en el Perú.El artículo plantea caminos para la transformación positiva del conflicto socioambiental a partir del enfoque de los Derechos Humanos. Ello se puede lograr a través de promover principios del Derecho Ambiental e instrumentos de gestión ambiental, regular aspectos sociales y culturales, promover la justicia ambiental y el respeto a los pueblos indígenas y la participación administrativa ciudadana en el otorgamiento de derechos sobre recursos naturales. Finalmente, se presenta el aporte reciente y novedoso de la Ley de Consulta Previa y su impacto en la participación de los pueblos indígenas en los procesos normativos y administrativos relacionados a la gestión de los recursos naturales.

It has been demonstrated that economic growth is a required condition but not enough to reduce poverty and inequality, which are obstacles to the full development of every society. As a result, different perspectives have emerged to challenge the current measurement of development, based on gross domestic product (GDP). Inclusive growth is a new approach that offers a combination of increased prosperity and greater equity. This article argues that the perspective of inclusive growth can draw on strategies implemented as local economic development (LED), and that communication for development is a significant alternative to move from discourse to implementation of endogenous processes. This analysis is based on the reality of countries rich in natural resources, particularly Peru, where economic growth and reduction of monetary poverty have been considerable, while the quality of life of its population has not necessarily improved in the same proportion. Communication for development plays a key role in the context of inclusive growth agenda in Peru, as it promotes the empowerment and coordination between public and private actors. / Se ha demostrado que el crecimiento económico es una condición necesaria pero no suficiente para reducir la pobreza y la inequidad, que son obstáculos para el desarrollo integral de toda sociedad. A raíz de ello, han surgido diversas perspectivas que cuestionan la actual medición del desarrollo, basada en el producto bruto interno (PBI). El crecimiento inclusivo es un nuevo enfoque que ofrece una combinación entre el aumento de la prosperidad y una mayor equidad. Este artículo sostiene que la perspectiva de crecimiento inclusivo puede nutrirse de estrategias aplicadas como el desarrollo económico local (DEL), y que la comunicación para el desarrollo constituye una alternativa significativa para pasar del discurso a la implementación de procesos endógenos. El análisis se fundamenta en la realidad de países ricos en recursos naturales, particu-larmente el Perú, donde el crecimiento económico y la reducción de la pobreza monetaria han sido considerables, mientras la calidad de vida de su población no necesariamente ha mejorado en la misma proporción. La comunicación para el desarrollo juega un rol clave en el contexto de la agenda de crecimiento inclusivo en el Perú, en la medida que promueve el empoderamiento y la articulación entre actores públicos y privados.

What motivates the State to modify its environmental institutional legacy? What are the conditions to strengthen or weaken the control over the environment? ftis article describes the growth and development of the environmental institutionality from the fiscalization, having as experience the development of the Organismo de Evaluación y Fiscalización Ambiental (OEFA) from its creation to the present. ftis research seeks to identify the factors and conditions for the strengthening and weakening of environmental fiscalization. fte sum of the elements such as state strength and bureaucracy, policy entrepreneurs, institutional change, interest groups and international requirements could explain when the strengthening or weakening of environmental control is considered, the increase or decrease in the fiscalization patterns and the levels of institutional affectation. / ¿Qué motiva al Estado a modificar su legado institucional ambiental? ¿Cuáles son las condiciones para fortalecer o debilitar la fiscalización sobre el medio ambiente? Este artículo describe el crecimiento y el desarrollo de la institucionalidad ambiental a partir de la fiscalización teniendo como experiencia el desenvolvimiento del Organismo de Evaluación y Fiscalización Ambiental (OEFA) desde su creación hasta la actualidad. Esta investigación busca identificar los factores y las condiciones para el fortalecimiento y debilitamiento de la fiscalización ambiental. La suma de los elementos como fortaleza y burocracia estatal, emprendedores de políticas, cambio institucional, grupos de interés y exigencias internacionales podrían explicar en qué momento se plantea el fortalecimiento o el debilitamiento de la fiscalización ambiental, el incremento o la disminución en los patrones de fiscalización y los niveles de afectación institucional.

Le pétrole, le gaz et les minerais sont des ressources indispensables pour le bon fonctionnement de nos économies et sont très convoitées. Elles sont, en outre, particulièrement propices à l’émergence de flux financiers illicites tels que la corruption, l’évitement fiscal ou encore le blanchiment de capitaux. La prise de conscience relative à l’ampleur des pratiques illicites dans le secteur extractif est relativement récente. Depuis une vingtaine d’années, diverses mesures formant un régime juridique ambitieux ont été adoptées pour endiguer ce phénomène. Malgré l’existence de ce régime juridique, les pratiques illicites perdurent au sein de ce secteur. Les acteurs du secteur extractif, entreprises et agents publics, ont su s’adapter et faire preuve de créativité pour contourner, détourner et manipuler ce régime juridique, afin de préserver leurs avantages et de perpétuer les flux financiers illicites. Ils peuvent également recourir à l’ingénierie juridique et financière qui leur fournit un arsenal d’outils juridiques et mobilise des experts maîtrisant à la perfection l’environnement juridique, politique et financier dans lequel les acteurs du secteur extractif évoluent. Ainsi le droit peut-il être propice aux flux financiers illicites et même au service de ceux-ci tout en voulant les combattre. / Oil, gas and minerals are indispensable resources for our economies and are sought-after. They are particularly prone to illicit financial flows such as corruption, tax avoidance and money laundering. Awareness of the extent of illicit practices in the extractive sector is relatively new. Over the last two decades, various measures have been adopted, forming an ambitious legal framework to combat illicit financial flows in the extractive sector. Despite the existence of this legal framework, illicit practices are still persistent. Stakeholders within the extractive sector such as companies and public officials have been able to adapt and be creative in order to abuse, circumvent and manipulate this legal framework in order to preserve their advantages and perpetuate illicit financial flows. They can also use legal and financial engineering, which provides them with an arsenal of legal tools and mobilizes experts who master the legal, political and financial environment in which companies and public officials evolve. Hence while wanting to combat illicit financial flows, law can find itself propitious to these illicit practices and even to their service.

Rechargeable batteries are set to power sustainable development by 2030. In this context, the increasingly important role of certain ‘strategic minerals’ used in emerging renewable technologies has become highly topical. As the geopolitical landscape is changing as the world moves away from fossil fuels, a surge in demand for these minerals will entail an increase of production at unprecedented levels. A case in point and a focus of analysis in this thesis is the extractive sector sourcing one of the most important of transition minerals ‘cobalt’ that is predominantly mined in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Against the challenge of a secret and non-transparent mining industry, this thesis has identified and listed all operational and openly communicative Multinational Corporations (MNC’s) extracting cobalt in the DRC. By conducting a critical discourse analysis on seven different cobalt extracting MNC’s, the analysis unveils different ways in which the companies ‘frame’ cobalt as strategic. Thus, a new and relevant ‘material-discursive framework’ has been utilised to bridge the underlying discourses of these companies with their material practices relating to cobalt. By employing this theoretical framework, the findings point at three main logics of corporate narrative the MNC’s in the sample use to form and maintain their operational activities: securitisation, environmentalism and developmentalism. Central discourses within these themes point at the way in which companies seek to maintain their economic security and legitimacy in an increasingly contested industry by continuously representing themselves as central actors with the responsibility and knowledge to deliver sustainable development for local communities affected by the industry in the DRC and for the sustainability transition.