Submitted by Angela Maria de Oliveira (amolivei@uepg.br) on 2018-02-22T14:26:17Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Flávia Pedroso.pdf: 2062416 bytes, checksum: e05f376a163a4ea5fd727a8979c3cc06 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-02-22T14:26:17Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Flávia Pedroso.pdf: 2062416 bytes, checksum: e05f376a163a4ea5fd727a8979c3cc06 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-09-02 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Vários tratamentos para desordens neurológicas são malsucedidos por não poderem atingir efetivamente o Sistema Nervoso Central (SNC). A presença da barreira hematoencefálica (BHE) dificulta esse acesso e muitas substâncias são incapazes de atravessá-la quando empregadas sem qualquer modificação química ou físico-química. O ácido ferúlico, um polifenol encontrado abundantemente na natureza e bem reconhecido por sua atividade antioxidante, antiinflamatória e anticâncer, é amplamente estudado e sua atividade neuroprotetora vem sendo descrita. Um dos principais problemas, que limita sua utilização clínica, é sua baixa biodisponibilidade quando administrado por via oral, que pode ser contornado por alterações e/ou modificações em sua estrutura química e/ou pelo preparo de formulações à base de lipídeos. Desta forma, o objetivo do presente trabalho foi sintetizar um derivado lipossolúvel do AF, o ferulato de hexadecila (FH), e posteriormente obter nanocápsulas poliméricas como sistema de vetorização para sua potencial ação no SNC. O FH foi obtido por esterificação e sua caracterização estrutural foi realizada por espectroscopia na região do infravermelho com transformada de Fourier (IVTF) e de ressonância magnética nuclear. A modificação estrutural não anulou a atividade scavenger frente aos radicais DPPH•, ABTS•+ e ao HOCl. As nanocápsulas poliméricas, em concentração de 0 a 2,0 mg.mL-1, foram desenvolvidas pelo método de deposição interfacial do polímero, utilizando poli(-caprolactona) (PCL) e blendas com polietilenoglicol (PEG). Todas as formulações preparadas apresentaram partículas esféricas e de superfície lisa, como observado por microscopia eletrônica de varredura com emissão de campo (MEV), pH entre 5,75 e 6,04, tamanhos adequados, inferiores a 234 nm, índice de polidispersão inferior a 0,26, garantindo sua homogeneidade, e potencial zeta com valores negativos, entre -28 e -38 mV, sugerindo estabilidade das suspensões de nanocápsulas poliméricas. O processo de nanoencapsulação promoveu a amorfização do FH, comprovada por análise de difração de raios X, calorimetria exploratória diferencial (CED) e MEV, bem como o aumento de sua estabilidade térmica, verificado por termogravimetria e CED, e as análises efetuadas de IVTF demonstraram que não houve interação entre o FH e os polímeros utilizados. Os estudos de toxicidade em eritrócitos demonstraram que o FH, livre ou nas formulações de nanocápsulas com PCL-PEG, não apresentou ação hemolítica, mesmo com variações na dose testada e em função do tempo. Adicionalmente, apresentou ação protetora sobre a hemólise promovida pelo AAPH. A possível ação das formulações desenvolvidas sobre o SNC, considerando que possuem características adequadas para sua vetorização, deve ser investigada futuramente. / Many neurological disorder treatments are unsuccessful because they can not effectively reach the central nervous system (CNS). The presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) hinders this access and a lot of substances are unable to pass through it when used without any chemical or physical-chemical modification. The ferulic acid, a polyphenol found abundantly in nature and well known for its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer activity, is widely studied and their neuroprotective activity has been described. One of the main problem, which limits its clinical use, is its low bioavailability when administered orally, it can be circumvented by changes in their structure and/or for preparing lipid-based formulations. In this way, the aim of this study was to synthesize a lipophilic derivative of AF, the hexadecyl ferulate (HF), and then get polymeric nanocapsules as vectoring system for its potential action in the CNS. The HF was obtained by esterification reaction and their structural characterization was performed by spectroscopy in the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and nuclear magnetic resonance. The structural modification did not annul the scavenger activity against the DPPH•, ABTS•+ and HOCl. The polymeric nanocapsules in concentration from 0 to 2.0 mg.mL-1 were developed by interfacial deposition method of the polymer using poly (-caprolactone) (PCL), and blends with polyethylene glycol (PEG). All prepared formulations presented spherical and smooth surface, as observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with field emission, pH between 5.75 and 6.04, proper sizes below 234 nm, polydispersity index below 0.26, ensuring homogeneity, and zeta potential with negative values between -28 and -38 mV, suggesting stability of the suspensions of polymeric nanocapsules. The nanoencapsulation process promoted the FH amorphization. This was verified by X-ray diffraction analysis, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and SEM. It also promoted the increasing thermal stability of the FH which was verified by thermogravimetry and DSC, and FTIR analysis demonstrated there was no interaction between HF and the used polymers.Toxicity studies in erythrocytes showed that HF , in free or nanocapsule formulations of PCL- PEG, showed no hemolytic action, even with variations in dose tested and function of time. Additionally, introduced protective effect on hemolysis promoted by AAPH. The possible action of the developed formulations of CNS, considering that they have appropriate characteristics for your vectorization, should be investigated in the future.

Palynology, the study of organic microfossils, is an important tool for improving our understanding of past environments and landscapes. Palynology provides a wealth of information from which climatic and environmental conditions can be inferred. However, inferred climatic and environmental conditions are often open to interpretation. Assumptions made about past climate conditions from pollen assemblages often rely on qualitative understanding of modern-day vegetation distributions, rather than empirical relationships. Historic anthropogenic impact on the environment must also be inferred, and assessments made as to whether vegetation changes are a result of climate change or human impact. This study seeks to address some of the questions that arise through the interpretation of pollen assemblages, by establishing empirical relationships between the geochemistry of modern pollen and climate or environmental controls. It focuses on the pollen of the climatically sensitive montane conifer Cedrus atlantica, which is distributed across the mountains of Morocco and Algeria. The study investigates aspects of modern pollen geochemistry and morphology and finds a strong relationship between the stable carbon isotope composition of modern pollen and mean annual precipitation (r2 = 0.54, p <0.001) and summer precipitation (r2 = 0.63, p <0.0001). Furthermore, a stronger relationship exists with aridity measured using the self-calibrating Palmer Drought Severity Index (r2 = 0.86, p <0.0001), suggesting that the stable carbon isotope composition of Cedrus atlantica pollen is influenced by environmental moisture availability. The study also finds there is an increased abundance of ultraviolet absorbing compounds (UACs) in modern Cedrus atlantica pollen with increasing summer UV-B flux. This relationship was evident with samples growing in their native range (r2 = 0.84, p <0.0001), but not with samples from outside this range (r2 = 0.00, p = 0.99), suggesting a possible genetic influence. Lastly, the study finds that grain size of Cedrus atlantica pollen is highly variable within and between samples, and we rule out climatic control on pollen grain size. These results suggest that quantitative relationships can be established between the geochemistry of Cedrus atlantica pollen and environmental and climatic influences. Stable carbon isotope analysis of fossil pollen could be used as a proxy for reconstruction of summer moisture availability, while analysis of UACs in fossil pollen could be used as a proxy for the reconstruction of summer UV-B flux. These proxies will enhance our understanding of climatic and environmental change in Northwest Africa and will complement existing palynological techniques for environmental and climate reconstruction. Palynology, the study of organic microfossils, is an important tool for improving our understanding of past environments and landscapes. Palynology provides a wealth of information from which climatic and environmental conditions can be inferred. However, inferred climatic and environmental conditions are often open to interpretation. Assumptions made about past climate conditions from pollen assemblages often rely on qualitative understanding of modern-day vegetation distributions, rather than empirical relationships. Historic anthropogenic impact on the environment must also be inferred, and assessments made as to whether vegetation changes are a result of climate change or human impact. This study seeks to address some of the questions that arise through the interpretation of pollen assemblages, by establishing empirical relationships between the geochemistry of modern pollen and climate or environmental controls. It focuses on the pollen of the climatically sensitive montane conifer Cedrus atlantica, which is distributed across the mountains of Morocco and Algeria. The study investigates aspects of modern pollen geochemistry and morphology and finds a strong relationship between the stable carbon isotope composition of modern pollen and mean annual precipitation (r2 = 0.54, p <0.001) and summer precipitation (r2 = 0.63, p <0.0001). Furthermore, a stronger relationship exists with aridity measured using the self-calibrating Palmer Drought Severity Index (r2 = 0.86, p <0.0001), suggesting that the stable carbon isotope composition of Cedrus atlantica pollen is influenced by environmental moisture availability. The study also finds there is an increased abundance of ultraviolet absorbing compounds (UACs) in modern Cedrus atlantica pollen with increasing summer UV-B flux. This relationship was evident with samples growing in their native range (r2 = 0.84, p <0.0001), but not with samples from outside this range (r2 = 0.00, p = 0.99), suggesting a possible genetic influence. Lastly, the study finds that grain size of Cedrus atlantica pollen is highly variable within and between samples, and we rule out climatic control on pollen grain size. These results suggest that quantitative relationships can be established between the geochemistry of Cedrus atlantica pollen and environmental and climatic influences. Stable carbon isotope analysis of fossil pollen could be used as a proxy for reconstruction of summer moisture availability, while analysis of UACs in fossil pollen could be used as a proxy for the reconstruction of summer UV-B flux. These proxies will enhance our understanding of climatic and environmental change in Northwest Africa and will complement existing palynological techniques for environmental and climate reconstruction.

Submitted by Renata Lopes (renatasil82@gmail.com) on 2017-07-25T12:36:24Z No. of bitstreams: 1 alessasinsingerbrugiolo.pdf: 28268825 bytes, checksum: 19819230b54e983b1d5aa62f656ce02c (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2017-08-09T13:50:57Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 alessasinsingerbrugiolo.pdf: 28268825 bytes, checksum: 19819230b54e983b1d5aa62f656ce02c (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-08-09T13:50:57Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 alessasinsingerbrugiolo.pdf: 28268825 bytes, checksum: 19819230b54e983b1d5aa62f656ce02c (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-03-11 / FAPEMIG - Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais / A asma é uma doença heterogênea, caracterizada por inflamação crônica das vias aéreas, definida pela história de sintomas respiratórios e associada a limitação variável do fluxo expiratório. Considerada um grave problema de saúde, estima-se que afete mais de 300 milhões de pessoas em todo o mundo. A resposta imunológica na asma envolve predominantemente linfócitos Th2, com elevados níveis de IgE total e alérgeno-específica e eosinofilia brônquica. O tratamento visa ao controle da doença e os medicamentos utilizados atualmente apresentam efeitos colaterais sistêmicos e, em geral, não são eficazes nos casos de asma de difícil controle, sendo crucial o desenvolvimento de novos tratamentos. Echinodorus grandiflorus é uma espécie vegetal conhecida como chapéu-de-couro muito utilizada por suas propriedades anti-inflamatórias. Em estudo anterior, o tratamento com o extrato aquoso dessa espécie reduziu a resposta imune patogênica Th2 no modelo de alergia pulmonar induzida por OVA. O ácido ferúlico é um ácido fenólico amplamente presente no reino vegetal e encontrado em E. grandiflorus que apresenta atividades antioxidante e anti-inflamatória. Neste trabalho, foram investigados os efeitos do extrato aquoso de E. grandiflorus, de suas frações metanólica e residual e do ácido ferúlico na modulação da resposta imune no modelo de alergia pulmonar. O extrato, as frações e o ácido ferúlico foram analisados por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência. Para indução da alergia pulmonar camundongos fêmeas BALB/c foram sensibilizados intraperitonealmente com OVA e alumen nos dias 0 e 14. Nos dias 21, 23, 25, 27 e 29, os animais foram desafiados com OVA 1% por 20 minutos. Os tratamentos foram administrados por gavagem, entre os dias 21 e 29 do protocolo. Foram coletados soro, lavado broncoalveolar e pulmões. Inicialmente, a análise cromatográfica revelou dois ácidos fenólicos como componentes majoritários do extrato e das frações, possivelmente relacionados às suas atividades farmacológicas, entretanto, o ácido ferúlico não foi identificado no extrato e nas frações. Todos os tratamentos foram promissores na modulação da resposta patogênica Th2, com os melhores resultados obtidos com o extrato aquoso 25 mg/kg, fração metanólica 25 mg/kg, fração residual 100 mg/kg e ácido ferúlico 25 mg/kg. Foram observadas reduções do infiltrado inflamatório pulmonar, do número de células caliciformes produtoras de muco, do número total de células e de eosinófilos, linfócitos e neutrófilos no lavado bronco-alveolar, dos níveis de TSLP, IL-25, IL-33, IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, IFN-γ, CCL5, CCL11 e CCL20 no tecido pulmonar e níveis séricos de IgE e IgG1. Juntos, esses resultados indicam que o extrato aquoso de E. grandiflorus, suas frações metanólica e residual e o ácido ferúlico, reduzem a inflamação pulmonar alérgica, atuando principalmente na fase inicial da resposta imune, reduzindo a liberação de citocinas e quimiocinas pelas células epiteliais das vias aéreas. / Asthma is a heterogeneous disease characterized by chronic airway inflammation, defined by history of respiratory symptoms and associated with variable expiratory flow limitation. Regarded as a serious health problem affecting an estimated over 300 million people worldwide. The immune response in asthma is predominantly Th2 lymphocytes, with high levels of total and allergen-specific IgE and bronchial eosinophilia. Asthma treatment is aimed at controlling the disease and the drugs used currently have systemic side effects and generally are not effective in cases of asthma are difficult to control, and it is crucial the developing new treatments. Echinodorus grandiflorus is a plant species known as “chapéu-de-couro” widely used for their anti-inflammatory properties. In previous work, the treatment with the aqueous extract of this specie reduced the pathogenic Th2 response in the OVAinduced pulmonary allergy. The ferulic acid is a phenolic acid widely present in the plant kingdom and found in E. grandiflorus which has antioxidant and antiinflammatory activities. In this study, the effect of aqueous extract of E. grandiflorus, its methanol and residual fractions, and ferulic acid in modulating the immune response of pulmonary allergy model was investigated. The aqueous extract, fractions and ferulic acid were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography. For induction of pulmonary allergy female BALB/c mice were intraperitoneally sensitized with OVA and alum on days 0 and 14. On days 21, 23, 25, 27 and 29, animals were challenged with OVA 1% for 20 minutes. Treatments were administered by gavage, between days 21 and 29 of protocol. The serum, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and lungs were collected. Chromatographic analysis revealed two phenolic acids as major components of extract and fractions that possibly are related to their pharmacological activities, however ferulic acid was not identified in the extract and fractions. The treatments were promising in the modulation of pathogenic Th2 response, with the best results obtained with the aqueous extract 25 mg/kg, methanolic fraction 25 mg/kg, residual fraction 100 mg/kg and ferulic acid 25 mg/kg. The treatments reduced the inflammatory infiltration in lung tissue, the number of goblet cells in lung tissue, the number of total cells, eosinophils, lymphocytes and neutrophils in bronchoalveolar lavage, the levels of TSLP, IL-25, IL33, IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, IFN-γ, CCL5, CCL11, and CCL20 in lung tissue, and the serum levels of IgE and IgG1. Taken together, these results indicate that the aqueous extract of E. grandiflorus, methanolic and residual fractions, and ferulic acid reduced the allergic pulmonary inflammation, act primarily in the early phase of the immune response, reducing the release of cytokines and chemokines by airways epithelial cells.

Tesis por compendio / [ES] El uso masivo de plásticos y su impacto medioambiental, así como la necesidad de mejorar la conservación de los alimentos, hace necesario el desarrollo de alternativas biodegradables para el envasado activo de alimentos. La presente Tesis Doctoral, se ha centrado en el desarrollo de películas activas, basados en polímeros biodegradables con propiedades complementarias, con el fin de obtener materiales con propiedades mecánicas y de barrera adecuadas para cumplir con los requisitos del envasado alimentario. Para ello, se consideraron el poli (vinil alcohol) (PVA) y el poli (ácido láctico) PLA. Asimismo, el carvacrol y los ácidos ferúlico y cinámico fueron elegidos como compuestos activos naturales. Se estudió la encapsulación del carvacrol en liposomas de diferentes tipos de lecitina para mejorar su retención durante la etapa de formación del film. La lecitina de soja enriquecida en fosfatidilcolina fue la más eficaz para mantener la estabilidad de la emulsión de carvacrol, resultando en films con mayor retención. La incorporación de carvacrol (encapsulado o no), modificó ligeramente la microestructura y las propiedades físicas de los films, así como la cristalinidad y el comportamiento térmico del polímero. El PVA totalmente hidrolizado proporcionó films con un mejor desempeño mecánico y capacidad de barrera al oxígeno, pero con menor retención de carvacrol. Por el contrario, el PVA parcialmente hidrolizado dio lugar a films más homogéneos, con mayor contenido de carvacrol. Mientras que los grupos acetilos protegieron al polímero de la termodegradación, permitiendo la obtención de films mediante las técnicas habituales del procesado industrial. Por lo tanto, el PVA parcialmente hidrolizado tiene un gran potencial para la producción de films activos, con más posibilidades de procesamiento que el PVA totalmente hidrolizado. Se incorporaron también ácido cinámico y ferúlico, con menor impacto sensorial que el del carvacrol, al PVA parcial y totalmente hidrolizado, mediante casting de las soluciones acuosas con glicerol para mejorar la solubilidad de los ácidos. Los films de PVA plastificados con glicerol mostraron una menor capacidad de barrera que los no plastificados. La incorporación del ácido ferúlico promovió mayores cambios en las propiedades de los films que el ácido cinámico, debido a un efecto de reticulación, que promovió la cristalinidad, la rigidez y la capacidad de barrera del material. También se obtuvieron películas plastificadas a base de PVA parcialmente hidrolizado con ácidos fenólicos, mediante mezclado en fundido y moldeo por compresión. Los films termoprocesados fueron menos extensibles y resistentes a la rotura y más permeables al oxígeno y al vapor de agua. Estudios in vitro demostraron que los films con ácidos fenólicos obtenidos por casting o termoprocesado presentaron actividad antioxidante y antimicrobiana, especialmente con ácido ferúlico. Con el objetivo de cumplir los requisitos de envasado de alimentos, se obtuvieron films tricapa por termocompresión, compuestos por una capa central de PVA, cargada con compuestos activos (carvacrol o ácido ferúlico), y dos capas externas de PLA. La termocompresión fue eficaz para la adhesión interlaminar. Las multicapas mostraron un rendimiento mecánico próximo al de los films de PLA y una elevada capacidad de barrera al oxígeno y al vapor de agua. Todos los laminados con compuestos activos incorporados a la capa de PVA fueron eficaces para controlar el crecimiento microbiano en filetes de carne de vacuno envasada. Por tanto, el laminado de films de PVA y PLA parcialmente hidrolizado representa una estrategia adecuada para obtener materiales de envasado con propiedades funcionales más próximas a las de algunos plásticos convencionales utilizados en el envasado alimentario. Asimismo, estos materiales con carvacrol o ácido ferúlico incorporados podrían utilizarse para el envasado de alimentos altamente susceptibles a procesos oxidativos o de degradación microbiológica para alargar su vida útil. / [CA] L'ús massiu de plàstics i el seu impacte mediambiental, així com la necessitat de millorar la conservació dels aliments, fa necessari el desenvolupament d'alternatives biodegradables per a l'envasament actiu d'aliments. La present Tesi Doctoral, s'ha centrat en el desenvolupament de pel·lícules actives, basats en polímers biodegradables amb propietats complementàries, amb la finalitat d'obtindre materials amb propietats mecàniques i de barrera adequades per a complir amb els requisits de l'envasament alimentari. Per a això, es van considerar el poli (vinil alcohol) (PVA) i el poli (àcid làctic) PLA. Així mateix, es van triar el carvacrol i els àcids ferúlic i cinàmic, com a compostos actius. Es va estudiar l'encapsulació del carvacrol en liposomes de diferents tipus de lecitina per a millorar la seua retenció durant l'etapa de formació del film. La lecitina de soja enriquida en fosfatidilcolina va ser la més eficaç per a mantindre l'estabilitat de l'emulsió de carvacrol, resultant en films amb major retenció. La incorporació de carvacrol (encapsulat o no), va modificar lleugerament la microestructura i les propietats físiques dels films, així com la cristalinitat i el comportament tèrmic del polímer. El PVA totalment hidrolitzat va proporcionar films amb un millor exercisc mecànic i capacitat de barrera a l'oxigen, però amb menor retenció de carvacrol. Per contra, el PVA parcialment hidrolitzat va donar lloc a films més homogenis, amb major contingut de carvacrol. Mentre que els grups acetils van protegir el polímer de la termodegradació, permetent l'obtenció de films mitjançant les tècniques habituals del processament industrial. Per tant, el PVA parcialment hidrolitzat té un gran potencial per a la producció de films actius, amb una més àmplia gamma de possibilitats de processament que el PVA totalment hidrolitzat. Es van incorporar també àcid cinàmic i ferúlic, amb menor impacte sensorial que el del carvacrol, al PVA parcial i totalment hidrolitzat, mitjançant càsting de les solucions aquoses amb glicerol per a millorar la solubilitat dels àcids. Els films de PVA plastificats amb glicerol van mostrar una menor capacitat de barrera que els no plastificats. La incorporació de l'àcid ferúlic va promoure majors canvis en les propietats dels films que l'àcid cinàmic, a causa d'un efecte de reticulació, que va promoure la cristalinitad, la rigidesa i la capacitat de barrera del material. També es van obtindre pel·lícules plastificades a base de PVA parcialment hidrolitzat amb àcids fenòlics, mitjançant barrejat en fos i emotlament per compressió. Els films termoprocessats van ser menys extensibles i resistents al trencament i més permeables a l'oxigen i al vapor d'aigua. Estudis in vitro van demostrar que els films amb àcids fenòlics obtinguts per càsting o termoprocessat van presentar activitat antioxidant i antimicrobiana, especialment amb àcid ferúlic. Amb l'objectiu de complir els requisits d'envasament d'aliments, es van obtindre films tricapa per termocompressió, compostos per una capa central de *PVA, carregada amb compostos actius (carvacrol o àcid ferúlic), i dues capes externes de PLA. La termocompressió va ser eficaç per a l'adhesió interlaminar. Les multicapes van mostrar un rendiment mecànic pròxim al dels films de PLA i una elevada capacitat de barrera a l'oxigen i al vapor d'aigua. Tots els laminatges amb compostos actius incorporats a la capa de PVA van ser eficaces per a controlar el creixement microbià en filets de carn de boví envasada. Per tant, el laminatge de films de PVA i PLA parcialment hidrolitzat representa una estratègia adequada per a obtindre materials d'envasament amb propietats funcionals més pròximes a les d'alguns plàstics sintètics utilitzats en l'envasament alimentari. Així mateix, aquests materials amb carvacrol o àcid ferúlic incorporats podrien utilitzar-se per a l'envasament d'aliments altament susceptibles a processos oxidatius o de degradació microbiològica per a allargar la seua vida útil. / [EN] The massive use of synthetic plastics and their environmental impact, as well as the need of improving food preservation, makes necessary the development of biodegradable alternatives for food active packaging. The use of active compounds from natural origin to obtain this kind of materials is a new trend based of the consumer demand for safer and healthier products. The present Doctoral Thesis, has been focused on the development of active packaging films, based on biodegradable polymers with complementary properties, in order to obtain materials with adequate mechanical and barrier properties to meet food packaging requirements. To this end, poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and poly (lactic acid) (PLA) were considered. Likewise, carvacrol and ferulic and cinnamic acid, were chosen as active natural compounds. The liposomal encapsulation of carvacrol, using different kinds of lecithin was evaluated in order to improve the carvacrol retention in the polymer matrix during the film formation step. Soy lecithin enriched in phosphatidylcholine was the most effective at maintaining the stability of the carvacrol emulsion, leading to its highest retention in the PVA films. Incorporation of carvacrol (lecithin encapsulated or not) slightly modified the film microstructure and physical properties and polymer crystallinity and thermal behaviour. The fully hydrolysed PVA provided films with a better mechanical performance and oxygen barrier capacity, but with less carvacrol retention. In contrast, partially hydrolysed PVA gave rise to more homogenous films with a higher carvacrol content. Acetyl groups protect the polymer for thermodegradation, allowing the film production using the common industrial thermoplastic processing techniques. Therefore, partially hydrolysed PVA has a great potential for the production of active films, with a wider range of processing possibilities than fully hydrolysed PVA. Cinnamic and ferulic acids, with lower potential sensory impact than of carvacrol, were also incorporated into partially and fully hydrolysed PVA by casting of aqueous solutions containing glycerol to improve the acid solubility. Glycerol plasticized PVA films exhibited poorer barrier capacity than those non-plasticized. The incorporation of ferulic acid promoted greater changes in the film properties than cinnamic acid, due to a crosslinking effect, which promoted crystallinity, stiffness and barrier capacity of the material. Glycerol plasticized films based on partially hydrolysed PVA with phenolic acids were also obtained by melt blending and compression moulding. Termoprocessed films were less stretchable and resistant to break and more permeable to oxygen and water vapor. In vitro studies demonstrated that cast and termoprocessed films containing phenolic acids exhibited antioxidant and antimicrobial activity, especially with ferulic acid. Three-layer films composed of a central layer of PVA loaded with active compounds (carvacrol lecithin encapsulated or not, or ferulic acid) and two external PLA layers were obtained by thermo-compression, aimed to meet food packaging requirements. Thermocompression was effective for the interlaminar adhesion. Multilayers exhibited mechanical performance close to the PLA sheets and high oxygen and water vapour barrier capacity. All laminates with active compounds incorporated into the PVA sheet were effective at controlling microbial growth in packaged beef meet. Therefore, lamination of partially hydrolysed PVA and PLA films represents a successful strategy to obtain packaging materials with functional properties closer to those of some conventional plastics commonly used in food packaging. Likewise, these materials incorporating carvacrol or ferulic acid could be used for packaging of foods highly susceptible to oxidative or microbiological degradative process to extend their shelf life. / The authors acknowledge the financial support of the Agencia Estatal de Investigacion, Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad (MINECO) of Spain through the projects AGL2016-76699-R and PID2019-105207RB-100. Author Johana Andrade thanks the Departamento de Nariño-Colombia y la Fundación CEIBA for the doctoral grant. The authors also thank the services rendered by the Electron Microscopy Service of the UPV. / Andrade Chapal, JC. (2021). Biodegradable materials based on poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and poly (lactic acid) (PLA) with antioxidant and antimicrobial activity for food packaging applications [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/175566 / TESIS / Compendio

This master thesis deals with an optimization of processes of isolation of ferulic acid from wheat bran. Process of isolation based on alkaline hydrolysis from the substance and its adsorption was tested. In the theoretical part were described wheat bran, adsorption proces and used methods. For adsorption were tested five types of adsorbents. Especially these adsorbents: activation carbon (2,53 ± 1,16 mg.l-1), Amberlyst A-21 (105,73 ± 11,87 mg.l-1, Amberlit XAD-16 (241,55 ± 10,42 mg.l-1), Amberlit IRA-900Cl (5,90 ± 0,68 mg.l-1) and Amberlit IRA-96 (189,16 ± 6,49 mg.l-1). As the most efficient adsorbent was determine Amberlit XAD-16. The whole process has underwent detailed optimization in order to maximize the purity of the final product. The isolate was characterized by HPLC and FTIR techniques for ferulic acid and related phenolic acids. Based on FTIR analysis was discovered that the isolate was contamined by proteins. A purification procedure based on deproteination of the raw material before the hydrolysis itself was proposed. As the ultimate solution that eliminated the presence of proteins in the isolate was determine ultrafiltration with capture of molecules with Mw > 10 KDa. Ferulic acid yield from one kilo of wheat bran was 1,00 ± 0,22 g.

Dans un contexte de démarche écoresponsable et pour répondre aux exigences de biocompatibilité notamment dans les applications cosmétiques et biomédicales, nous avons développé de nouveaux hydrogels à base de polysaccharides neutres et anioniques en utilisant deux voies originales. La 1ère approche est biomimétique et a consisté à mimer un phénomène d’élaboration naturelle d’hydrogels que l’on retrouve chez certains végétaux pour lesquels une enzyme, la laccase, permet de créer des liens de réticulation par dimérisation des composés phénoliques (en l’occurrence de l’acide férulique FA) présents sur les arabinoxylanes des mucilages des graines de céréales par exemple. Notre travail a ainsi consisté à greffer de l’acide férulique via deux chimies différentes de type imidazole et carbodiimide respectivement pour des polysaccharides neutres ou anioniques. Nous avons ainsi fonctionnalisé trois polysaccharides : le pullulane ou PUL (neutre modèle), le carboxyméthylpullulane ou CMP (anionique modèle) et l’acide hyaluronique ou HA (anionique d’intérêt). Des taux de greffage compris entre 2 et 25% ont été obtenus. L’étude physicochimique en régimes dilué et semi-dilué a permis de mettre en évidence un comportement associatif lié au caractère amphiphile des polysaccharides fonctionnalisés. La réticulation en présence de laccase, suivie in situ en rhéologie, a été réalisée avec succès sur les différents systèmes envisagés avec des contrôles possibles de la cinétique, des propriétés mécaniques finales ou encore du gonflement des hydrogels en fonction du caractère neutre ou chargé des polysaccharides, du degré de substitution en acide férulique, de la concentration en polymère ou de l’activité enzymatique fixée. Les dérivés synthétisés ont globalement démontré des activités biologiques (antioxydante et cytocompatible) intéressantes. La deuxième approche repose sur la photoréticulation possible de polysaccharides (PUL, CMP et HA) fonctionnalisés par le greffage d’amine/acide gras mono ou polyinsaturé (oleylamine, acide oléique et linoléique) via la chimie des imidazoles. Si le pullulane modifié par l’acide linoléique à 2% s’est avéré non hydrosoluble en raison de son caractère neutre, tous les autres dérivés avec des taux de greffages de 3 et 10% ont démontré une bonne solubilité dans l’eau. Les études physicochimiques mettent en évidence un très fort caractère associatif de ces dérivés amphiphiles avec la formation de gels physiques en régime semi-dilué. La photoréticulation a été démontrée en rhéologie sous irradiation UV in situ en présence d’un photoamorceur de type Darocur 1173®. Les résultats préliminaires obtenus selon cette approche en photoréticulation ouvrent ainsi des perspectives intéressantes. / In the framework of an eco-responsible context and to take advantage of biocompatibility, notably in cosmetic and biomedical applications, we have developed new hydrogels based on neutral and anionic polysaccharides using two original routes. The first approach is biomimetic and consists of mimicking a natural development of hydrogels that is found in certain plants for which an enzyme, laccase, allows to create crosslinks by dimerization of phenolic compounds, in occurrence of ferulic acid (FA) present on arabinoxylans mucilage of cereal seeds for example. Thus, our work consisted in grafting ferulic acid via two different chemical ways that means imidazole and carbodiimide respectively for neutral or anionic polysaccharides. We functionalized three polysaccharides: pullulan or PUL (neutral model), carboxymethylpullulane or CMP (model anionic) and hyaluronic acid or HA (anionic of interest) with grafting rates of between 2 and 25%. The physicochemical study in diluted and semi-diluted regimes evidenced an associative behavior due to the amphiphilic character of the functionalized polysaccharides. The crosslinking in the presence of laccase, followed in situ thanks to rheology, has been successfully performed on the various envisaged systems with possible controls of kinetics, the final mechanical properties or the swelling of the hydrogels as a function of the neutral or charged nature of the polysaccharides, the degree of substitution in FA, the polymer concentration or the enzymatic activity. The synthesized derivatives have generally demonstrated interesting biological activities (antioxidant and cytocompatibility). The second approach is based on the possible photocrosslinking of polysaccharides (PUL, CMP and HA) functionalized by the grafting of mono or polyunsaturated fatty amine/acid (oleylamine, oleic acid and linoleic acid) via imidazole chemistry. If pullulan grafted with 2% of linoleic acid was found to be water-insoluble due to its neutral character, all other derivatives (i.e. anionic ones) with grafting rates of 3 and 10% showed good solubility in water. The physicochemical studies show a very strong associative character of these amphiphilic derivatives with the formation of physical gels in semi-diluted regime. Photocrosslinking has been demonstrated in situ thanks to rheology/UV irradiation in the presence of a Darocur 1173® photoinitiator. The preliminary results according to this photocrosslinking approach thus open interesting perspectives.

Tesis por compendio / [ES] Los residuos de envases alimentarios contribuyen en gran medida a la actual crisis medioambiental provocada por los plásticos. Por ello, la industria alimentaria necesita soluciones de envasado más sostenibles y respetuosas con el medio ambiente, utilizando materiales biodegradables y activos para alargar la vida útil de los alimentos. En este sentido, la presente tesis doctoral tiene como objetivo la obtención de películas activas a base de almidón y PLA mediante la incorporación de ácidos ferúlico o cinámico como compuestos activos, con el fin de desarrollar laminados multicapa que cumplan con los requisitos de envasado de alimentos, con capacidad antibacteriana para alargar la vida útil del producto. La incorporación de los ácidos ferúlico y cinámico a las matrices de almidón de yuca mediante el proceso de mezclado en fundido, al 1 y 2%, promovió la plastificación de la película, probablemente debido a la hidrólisis parcial del polímero durante el proceso de mezclado. Los análisis de la actividad antibacteriana de las películas frente a Escherichia coli y Listeria innocua, en medio de cultivo, revelaron que las películas con ácido cinámico eran más eficaces para inhibir el crecimiento bacteriano, y que Listeria innocua era más sensible a ambos ácidos que E. coli. Cuando los ácidos se incorporaron a las matrices de PLA al 1 y 2% mediante mezclado en fundido, las propiedades funcionales de las películas no se vieron muy afectadas. Sin embargo, los ensayos antimicrobianos in vitro con L. innocua y E. coli, no mostraron acción antibacteriana. Los estudios de liberación mostraron una liberación muy limitada de los ácidos desde la matriz de PLA debido al estado vítreo de la matriz polimérica y a su naturaleza hidrofóbica, que limitan el hinchamiento y la relajación del polímero en contacto con medios acuosos, como muchas matrices alimentarias. Por lo tanto, para promover la liberación del compuesto activo desde la matriz de PLA, se analizaron diferentes estrategias: 1) plastificar las películas termoprocesadas con PEG 1000, 2) aumentar la concentración de los compuestos en la película, 3) procesar las películas por casting y 4) anclar los compuestos activos a la superficie de la película. Sólo la incorporación superficial de ferúlico o cinámico en las películas de PLA dio lugar a una inhibición significativa del crecimiento bacteriano. La pulverización de las películas de PLA con soluciones etanólicas de ácido permitió la formación superficial de una capa sobre concentrada de compuestos activos en las películas, con formaciones cristalinas que dio lugar a una adecuada liberación de activos para inhibir el crecimiento bacteriano. Disoluciones de PLA-ácido, utilizando mezclas de acetato de etilo con DMSO o ácido acético glacial, fueron electrodepositadas en la superficie de las películas. Los sistemas con DMSO produjeron fibras con una elevada superficie específica que inhibieron significativamente el crecimiento bacteriano, mientras que los sistemas con ácido acético produjeron estructuras particuladas sin actividad antimicrobiana. Se consideró la incorporación superficial de los compuestos activos para obtener películas de tres capas PLA/almidón/PLA (PSP) con mejores propiedades funcionales y capacidad antimicrobiana. Las películas cargadas superficialmente, tanto por electrospinning como por pulverización, mostraron una eficaz inhibición del crecimiento de E. coli y L. innocua, siendo las películas recubiertas por electrospinning más eficaces que las pulverizadas. Por lo tanto, los laminados PSP, con incorporación superficial de ácidos ferúlico o cinámico, representan una buena alternativa para obtener materiales de envasado de alimentos activos, con capacidad para preservar la calidad de los alimentos y prolongar su vida útil. No obstante, son necesarios más estudios sobre aplicaciones específicas en alimentos reales para determinar la posible aplicación industrial y la viabilidad económica de estos materiales. / [CA] Els residus d' envasos alimentaris contribueixen en gran mesura a l' actual crisi mediambiental provocada pels plàstics. Per això, la indústria alimentària necessita solucions d' envasament més sostenibles i respectuoses amb el medi ambient, utilitzant materials biodegradables i actius per allargar la vida útil dels aliments. En aquest sentit, aquesta tesi doctoral té com a objectiu l' obtenció de pel·lícules actives a base de midó i PLA mitjançant la incorporació d' àcids ferúlic o cinàmic com a compostos actius, per tal de desenvolupar laminats multicapa que compleixin amb els requisits d' envasament d' aliments, amb capacitat antibacteriana per allargar la vida útil del producte. La incorporació dels àcids ferúlic i cinàmic a les matrius de midó de iuca mitjançant el procés de mesclament en fos, a l'1 i 2% p/p, va promoure la plastificació de la pel·lícula, probablement a causa de la hidròlisi parcial del polímer durant el procés de barret. Les anàlisis de l'activitat antibacteriana de les pel·lícules enfront d'Escherichia coli i Listeria innocua, en medi de cultiu, van revelar que les pel·lícules amb àcid cinàmic eren més eficaces per inhibir el creixement bacterià, i que Listeria innocua era més sensible a tots dos àcids que E. coli. Quan els àcids van incorporar a les matrius de PLA a l'1 i al 2% mitjançant mesclament en fos, les propietats funcionals de les pel·lícules no es van veure gaire afectades. No obstant això, els assajos antimicrobians in vitro amb L. innocua i E. coli, no van mostrar acció antibacteriana. Els estudis d'alliberament van mostrar un alliberament molt limitat dels àcids ferúlic i cinàmic des de la matriu de PLA a causa de l'estat vitri de la matriu polimèrica i a la seva naturalesa hidrofòbica, que limiten l'hinxament i la relaxació del polímer en contacte amb mitjans aquosos, com moltes matrius alimentàries. Per tant, per promoure l' alliberament del compost actiu des de la matriu de PLA, es van analitzar diferents estratègies: 1) plastificar les pel·lícules termoprocessades amb PEG 1000, 2) augmentar la concentració dels compostos a la pel·lícula, 3) processar les pel·lícules per casting i 4) ancorar els compostos actius a la superfície de la pel·lícula. Només la incorporació superficial de ferúlic o cinàmic a les pel·lícules de PLA va donar lloc a una inhibició significativa del creixement bacterià. La polvorització de les pel·lícules de PLA amb solucions etanòliques d'àcid va permetre la formació superficial d'una capa sobreconcentrada de compostos actius a les pel·lícules, amb formacions cristal·lines, que va donar lloc a un adequat alliberament d'actius per inhibir el creixement bacterià. Dissolucions de PLA-àcid, utilitzant mescles d'acetat d'etil amb DMSO o àcid acètic glacial, van ser electrodepositades a la superfície de les pel·lícules. Els sistemes amb DMSO van produir fibres amb una elevada superfície específica que van inhibir significativament el creixement bacterià, mentre que els sistemes amb àcid acètic van produir estructures particulades sense activitat antimicrobiana. Es va considerar la incorporació superficial dels compostos actius per obtenir pel·lícules de tres capes PLA/midó/PLA (PSP) amb millors propietats funcionals i capacitat antimicrobiana. Les pel·lícules carregades superficialment, tant per electrospinning com per polvorització, van mostrar una eficaç inhibició del creixement d'E. coli i L. innocua, sent les pel·lícules recobertes per electrospinning més eficaços que les polvoritzades. Per tant, els laminats PSP, amb incorporació superficial d'àcids ferúlic o cinàmic, representen una bona alternativa per obtenir materials d'envasat d'aliments actius, amb capacitat per preservar la qualitat dels aliments i prolongar la seva vida útil. No obstant això, calen més estudis sobre aplicacions específiques en aliments reals per determinar la possible aplicació industrial i la viabilitat econòmica d' aquests materials. / [EN] Food packaging waste is a major contributor to the current environmental crisis caused by conventional plastic. Therefore, the food industry needs more sustainable environmentally friendly packaging solutions, such as using biodegradable and active materials to extend the food shelf-life. In this sense, the present doctoral thesis aims to obtain active films based on starch and PLA by incorporating ferulic or cinnamic acids as active compounds, in order to develop multilayer assemblies useful to meet food packaging requirements, with antibacterial capacity to extend the product shelf life. The incorporation of ferulic and cinnamic acids into cassava starch matrices through melt-blending process, at 1 and 2% w/w, promoted the film plasticization, probably due to the partial hydrolysis of polymer during the melt-blending process. The analyses of the antibacterial activity of the films against E. coli and Listeria innocua strains, in culture medium, revealed that films with cinnamic acid were more effective at inhibiting the bacterial growth, and that L. innocua was more sensitive to both acids than E. coli. When the acids were incorporated into PLA matrices at 1 and 2% w/w by melt blending, the functional properties of the films were not greatly affected. However, the in vitro antimicrobial tests with L. innocua and E. coli, did not show antibacterial action. Release studies showed very limited release of the ferulic and cinnamic acids from the PLA matrix due to the glassy state of polymer matrix and its hydrophobic nature that limits the polymer swelling and relaxation in contact with aqueous media, such as many food matrices. Therefore, in order to promote the release of active compound from the PLA matrix, different strategies were analysed: 1) plasticizing the thermoprocessed films with PEG 1000, 2) increasing the concentration of the compounds in the film, 3) processing the films by casting and 4) anchoring the active compounds to the film surface. Only the surface incorporation of ferulic or cinnamic on PLA films gave rise to significant bacterial growth inhibition. Pulverization of PLA films with ferulic or cinnamic acid ethanol solutions allows the formation of an overconcentrated layer of active compounds on the films with crystalline formations that led to an adequate release of actives to inhibit the bacterial growth. PLA-acid solutions, using blends of ethyl acetate with dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) or glacial acetic acid, were electrospun on the film surface. DMSO systems produced fibre-structured mats with high specific surface that significantly inhibited bacterial growth, whereas acetic acid systems produce bead-based mats that not had antimicrobial activity. The surface incorporation of the active compounds was considered for obtaining three-layered films PLA/starch/PLA (PSP) with improved functional properties and antimicrobial capacity. Superficially loaded films by both electrospinning or pulverisation, showed effective growth inhibition of E. coli and L. innocua, electrospun films being more effective than pulverised, suggesting greater ability to release the active compounds. Therefore, PSP laminates, with surface incorporation of ferulic or cinnamic acids, represent a good alternative to obtain active food packaging materials with the capacity to preserve food quality and extend shelf life. Nonetheless, further studies on the material stability and specific applications in real foods are necessary to determine the possible industrial application and economic viability of these materials. / The authors thank the Agencia Estatal de Investigación (Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación, Spain) for the financial support through projects AGL2016-76699-R and PID2019-105207RB-I00. / Ordóñez Lagos, RA. (2022). Use of ferulic and cinnamic acids to obtain active films based on starch and PLA for food packaging applications [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/184814 / TESIS / Compendio

Biologiska processer hos olika organismer påverkas av ultraviolett-B-strålning (UV-B). Kunskapen om förändringar i UV-B-flödet som nått planetens yta under det geologiska tidsspann sedan flercelligt liv uppstod är dock begränsad. Följaktligen har olika biologiska proxies använts som ett sätt att försöka rekonstruera UV-B-flödet som når jordens yta. Växter reagerar på fluktuationen av UV-B genom att variera produktionen av fenolföreningar såsom parakumarsyra (pCA) och ferulinsyra, och därför kan dessa beståndsdelar användas som UV-B-proxys. UV-B-absorberande föreningar (UAC) finns i växternas yttersta skikt, den så kallade kutikulan men även i pollen och sporer, vilka oftaär välbevarade i det geologiska arkivet. Ändå är användningen av kutikula som UV-B-proxy inte lika undersökt. Därför syftar denna magisteruppsats till att analysera kemiska förändringar i fossila växters från trias – jura-gränsen (c. 200 miljoner år gamla)  och deras potential som UV-B-proxys. Eftersom de fossila löven behövde rengöras från sediment och från förkolnat mesofyll, gjordes också en analys av de kemiska förändringarna som orsakades av de olika rengöringsstegen. Icke-destruktiva tekniker, som mikro-FTIR och konfokalt Raman-mikroskop, användes för analysen. Försöken visade att analysen endast kunde utföras med mikro-FTIR på grund av den höga auto-fluorescensen hos de fossila bladen  vilketförhindrade analys med Raman. Signifikanta förändringar orsakades då Schulzes reagens användes för borttagning av mesofyllet, vilket ledde till nitrering av kutikulan. Ett mindre aggressivt och mer hållbart alternativ till denna process har visat sig vara väteperoxid, vilket orsakade mindre förändringar av den fossila kutikulans kemiska sammansättning. Dessutom upptäcktes indikation på förekomst av UAC endast i Ginkgoites regnellii, vilket indikerar att eventuell nedbrytning av dessa föreningar inträffade under diagenesen av de andra analyserade fossilerna. / Biological processes of different organisms are impacted by ultraviolet-B radiation (UV-B). However, knowledge about alterations in the UV-B flux reaching the planet’s surface during the geological past is limited. Consequently, different biological proxies have been used as an approach to attempt reconstructing the UV-B flux reaching Earth’s surface. Plants respond to the fluctuation of UV-B by varying the production of phenolic compounds such as p-coumaric acid (pCA) and ferulic acid, and therefore these constituents can be used as UV-B proxies. UV-B-absorbing compounds (UACs) can be found in the cuticle, pollen, and spores, which are all well-preserved in the geological record. Nevertheless, the use of cuticles as UV-B proxy is not as explored. Hence, this Master’s thesis aimed to analyse chemical changes in the plant cuticles from the Triassic–Jurassic boundary and their potential as UV-B proxies. Moreover, as the cuticles needed to be cleaned from rocks and isolated from coalified mesophyll, an analysis of the chemical changes caused by the cleaning steps was also done. Non-destructive techniques, as micro-FTIR and confocal Raman microscope, were used for the analysis.  Yet, the analysis could only be conducted with micro-FTIR due to auto-fluorescence of the leaves preventing success with Raman. Main changes during the cleaning steps were caused using Schulze’s reagent, which led to nitration of the cuticles. A less aggressive and more sustainable alternative to this process is shown to be hydrogen peroxide, which caused minor alteration of the fossil cuticle’s chemical composition.  Moreover, indication of the presence of UACs was detected only in Ginkgoites regnellii, indicating that possible degradation of these compounds occurred during diagenesis of the other fossils analysed.

För att möjliggöra en hållbar utveckling skiftar många polymerforskares fokus just nu från att syntetisera polymerer från fossila resurser till att producera biobaserade polymerer från exempelvis träd. Av särskilt intresse är lignin, som utgör ungefär en tredjedel av allt växtmaterial men i nuläget oftast används som bränsle. Många forskare har undersökt de möjligheter som öppnas genom att bryta ner lignin och modifiera molekylerna som fås därigenom, såsom ferulsyra. Denna studie syftade till att modifiera ferulsyra till en styren-lik monomer med en karboxyl-substituent, och att testa vattenbaserad polymerisation av denna monomer.Det första steget i modifiering var dekarboxylering av ferulsyra. Detta utfördes genom upprepningar av tidigare studier där baskatalyserad dekarboxylering utfördes i polära aprotiska lösningsmedel. Efter flera försök hittades en fungerande metod, där trietylamin gav en dekarboxylering med högt utbyte efter tre timmar i dimetylformamid vid 100 °C. Att isolera produkten var också utmanande i början, men en trestegs-extraktion med H2O och Et2O som avslutades med en tvätt av saltvatten gav tillräcklig renhet. En ättiksyra-grupp adderades till fenolen med hjälp av en tvåstegsreaktion som hittades i litteraturen, men inte förrän ett dussin försök till nya metoder med kloroättiksyra gjorts utan framgång. I den fungerande metoden tillsattes en acetatgrupp med metylbromoacetat i återkokande aceton med kaliumkarbonat som bas, innan acetatet demetylerades av litiumhydroxid i en metanol/vattenblandning vid rumstemperatur.Den resulterande monomeren, 4-oxy-ättiksyra-3-methoxy-styren (OAMS), sampolymeriserades med styren, både i bulk- och emulsionspolymerisation. Bulksampolymeren hade en något högre molekylvikt och glastransitionstemperatur än homopolystyren, med en betydligt högre dispersitet. Emulsionspolymerisation var utmanande, eftersom OAMS inte är särskilt löslig i vare sig vatten eller styren, och i slutändan producerades inga tydliga resultat genom dessa försök.  Studiens huvudsakliga slutsats är att även om det är möjligt att syntetisera ren OAMS från ferulsyra, är användbarheten av denna molekyl som monomer i vattenbaserad polymerisering inte övertygande, eftersom den är så pass olöslig om inte bas tillsätts, vilket introducerar risken för hydrolys.Slutligen, även om studien ledde till få säkra slutsatser på grund av flera ofullständiga resultat, uppnåddes huvudsyftet att modifiera ferulsyra och testa polymerisation av den bildade monomeren. / To enable a sustainable development, scientific focus is shifting from synthesizing polymers from fossil-based resources to producing bio-based polymers from for example wood. Of particular interest is lignin, which makes up about a third of plant matter but is nowadays most commonly used as fuel. A great deal of research has explored the possibilities opened up by breaking down lignin and modifying its derived molecules, such as ferulic acid. This study aimed to modify ferulic acid into a styrenic monomer with an acidic substituent, and to investigate the aqueous polymerization of this monomer.The first step of modification was the decarboxylation of ferulic acid. This was attempted through recreations of previous studies where base-catalysed decarboxylation was carried out in aprotic polar solvents. After several trials, a successful procedure was found, where triethylamine gave a high-yield decarboxylation after three hours in dimethylformamide at 100 °C. Isolating the product was also initially challenging, but a three-step extraction with H2O and Et2O finished by a wash of brine gave sufficient purity.Adding an acetic acid-group to the phenol was achieved using a two-step procedure found in literature, but not before trying a dozen novel methods using chloroacetic acid without success. In the working procedure, an acetate group was added using methyl bromoacetate in refluxed acetone with potassium carbonate as base, before demethylating the acetate using lithium hydroxide in a methanol/water mix at room temperature. The resulting monomer, 4-oxy-acetic acid-3-methoxy-styrene (OAMS), was copolymerized with styrene, both in bulk and emulsion radical polymerization. The bulk copolymer displayed a slightly higher molecular weight and glass transition temperature than homopolystyrene, with a significantly higher dispersity. Emulsion polymerization was challenging, as OAMS is not very soluble in either water or styrene, and ultimately, no conclusive results were produced through this route.The study concluded that while it is possible to synthesize pure OAMS from ferulic acid, the degree of usability of this molecule as a monomer in aqueous polymerization is not certain, as it is hardly soluble without the addition of base, which introduces the risk of hydrolysis. Ultimately, although few solid conclusions could be drawn from this study due to several incomplete results, the core objective of modifying ferulic acid and testing polymerization of the resulting monomer was achieved.

Euclea undulata Thunb. var myrtina is a widely distributed shrub in South Africa. The roots are used by traditional healers for the treatment of diabetes. Research indicates that roots contain epicatechin, lupeol as well α-amyrin-3O-β-(5-hydroxy) ferulic acid. It was found that α-amyrin-3O-β-(5-hydroxy) ferulic acid inhibits α-glucosidase while epicatechin lowers glucose levels in the blood. Existing literature also indicates the presence of the naphthoquinone 7-methyl-juglone in the roots, although it was not detected in all cases. Due to its cytotoxic nature, 7-methyl-juglone poses a potential threat when E. undulata is used as medicinal treatment. In order to assist the effective and safe use of this plant as a treatment for diabetes, this project aims to determine whether the presence of these metabolites is seasonal. It further aims to contribute to more sustainable harvesting methods by investigating stems and leaves in addition to the roots for the presence of these metabolites. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Science)