Chapter I introduces the Vancouver Island or ‘Douglas’ Treaties of 1850-54, entered into between several Vancouver Island First Nations and Hudson’s Bay Company Chief Factor, James Douglas, acting as agent of the Crown. The written versions purported to extinguish the aboriginal title of the First Nations to their land. Recent research has indicated that these documents do not accurately reflect what was agreed between the parties at the treaty meetings. The goal of the dissertation is to ascertain the likely terms of the treaties. This task also posed my major research challenge, as very little contemporaneous documentation exists of the formation of the treaties. There are a number of first- and second-hand accounts reduced to writing long after the events described, but they have received little attention from scholars until now. Chapter II is devoted to a critical analysis and comparison of the extant First Nation and colonial accounts, from which I conclude that the treaties were likely agreements by the First Nations to share not cede their land. Chapter III makes a comparison with first person accounts of the Washington or ‘Stevens’ Treaties of 1854-55, entered into between vii viii Native American tribes and the United States government. I conclude that these accounts bolster the likelihood that the Vancouver Island agreements were sharing treaties. Chapter IV follows up on a fascinating connection between the written versions of the Vancouver Island Treaties and an agreement concerning land between the Ngai Tahu Moari of New Zealand’s south island and Henry Kemp, acting as agent of the Crown. The comparison provides a number of useful contrasts and parallels with the Vancouver Island Treaties. Chapter V describes the silencing of the Vancouver Island Treaties by the policies of successive governments, the inattention of scholars and the decisions of Canadian courts. Finally, Chapter VI reviews existing and potential categories of historical treaties between First Nations and the Crown. By analogy with treaty categories in international law and the work of political and legal theorists, I make the case for the Vancouver Island Treaties as examples of modus vivendi (interim or framework agreements). / Graduate / 2017-02-24

The purpose of this research is to contribute to the identification of appropriate forest tenure and governance designs that are in congruence with Aboriginal values, interests and rights. The research is highly relevant to current societal deliberations on sustainable forest management as well as to the future of the forest sector in Canada. First Nations culture and ways of life are intimately and inextricably tied to the land. Some eighty percent of Canada’s First Nations communities are situated in productive forest regions (NAFA 2003). Even so, First Nations have been largely excluded from forest development and planning activities. Furthermore, the provincial policy emphasis on industrial timber production may not be consistent with Aboriginal forest values. This community-based research takes a participatory approach to forest policy analysis. The work is conducted in partnership with the Stellat’en First Nation and Carrier Sekani Tribal Council in central British Columbia. Stellat’en criteria for forest tenure and governance are identified in a series of workshops and interviews. These criteria are then applied in the analysis of four alternative models: the Community Ecosystem Trust, the Gitanyow joint land use planning model, BC Community Forest Agreements and Aboriginal reservations in the United States. The results indicated that Stellat’en have three main goals regarding forest tenure and governance: protect the traditional territory for future generations, protect Stellat’en culture and support Stellat’en economic self-determination. Implementation of the Stellat’en vision calls for a greater emphasis on ecological and cultural values in forest management, devolution of decision making authority to First Nations, reallocation of harvesting rights and redistribution of wealth generated by forest activities. The Stellat’en perspective emphasizes co-existence and stewardship. Evaluation of the four alternative models provided useful insights for progressive tenure and governance design. All four models had positive aspects to contribute, as well as shortcomings. The models are not mutually exclusive. Since each model addresses different management and institutional functions, they could be combined into a new system for the future. / Forestry, Faculty of / Graduate

This thesis will explore how the Supreme Court of Canada understands and frames the religious ways of the Gitksan and Wet’suwet’en First Nations peoples, in the case Delgamuukw v. British Columbia (1997). The case started as a land claims case but at the Supreme Court level it became about whether Aboriginal oral knowledge could be used as historical evidence in a Canadian court of law, in particular for this dispute, as an aid for First Nations peoples to establish title to their traditional territories. The Court decided that Aboriginal oral knowledge could be used as evidence. This thesis does five things: 1. It examines some of the tools that can be used to examine and evaluate how the religious ways of Aboriginal peoples are discussed in law in Canada. Here it focuses on using a broad understanding of religion as “lived” to understand religion. It also establishes a social-scientific method of discourse analysis, drawn from a number of sources, to evaluate legal documents. 2. This thesis explores the socio-legal context in Canada in which Aboriginal peoples and their claims need to be understood. Here the presence of European and Christian views that are still present in society and social institutions in Canada and the way they affect how Aboriginal religious ways are understood is determined. The characteristics of law that make it difficult for Aboriginal claims to be understood and handled adequately in court in Canada are also investigated. 3. The third aspect that this thesis focuses on the markers of the religious ways of Aboriginal peoples in the Delgamuukw case and how are they understood in the Canadian socio-legal context. Here there is discussion of oral knowledge, land, crests, feasting and totem poles and what each might mean for the Gitksan and Wet’suwet’en peoples and how the legal system might have trouble handling them. 4. Analysis of the Delgamuukw case is the fourth part of this thesis. How the law understands and frames the religious ways of the Gitksan and Wet’suwet’en peoples in the Delgamuukw case are investigated. It is determined that the Court downplayed the religious ways of Aboriginal peoples (by “writing out”, by using vague language to refer to it or by not mentioning it at all); it did not do justice to Aboriginal beliefs by labeling oral knowledge as “sacred”; the Delgamuukw decision fell short of really treating oral knowledge as equal to other forms of historical evidence by excluding oral knowledge with religious content; legal adjudicators made pronouncements on the religious uses of land for the Gitksan and Wet’suwet’en and finally; land was quantified, regulated and title was diminished by the ability for the court to infringe on it. What these actions by the Court suggested about how it understands religion and the religious ways of Aboriginal peoples where also contemplated. It was noted that the law characterized issues and used language in particular ways to avoid discussing religion, to discount it as evidence, and used a Christian understanding of religion to comprehend Aboriginal religious ways, which did not do justice to their beliefs. 5. The last part of this thesis questions whether there other ways in which the law, and the majority of non-Aboriginal peoples in Canada, could come to better understand and handle the religious ways of Aboriginal peoples than they did in the Delgamuukw case. It determines that there are a number of indications that suggest that this is possible including, the unique historical situation of Canada, the teaching and communication skills present in many Aboriginal communities, the space opened surrounding the inclusion of oral knowledge as evidence in law, increasing dialogue with Aboriginal communities, and the current revaluation of history. Nevertheless, there is also an ambivalence on behalf of the law regarding whether or not it will go in the direction that could view Aboriginal religious ways in alternative ways which could result in a better understanding these ways on their own terms. The thesis concludes that according to analysis of the Delgamuukw case, law has difficulty understanding and handling the religious ways of Aboriginal peoples in Canada.

Critical Incident Stress (CIS) in emergency workers and in victims of crises is widely held to be the possible precursor to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) if left unattended. Indeed, the symptoms for CIS and PTSD overlap in all category areas. Today, the commonly used treatment for trauma in emergency workers is Critical Incident Stress Management (CISM). This system of interventions includes a debriefing session which facilitates people to fully remember the trauma events and their own reactions to it. CISM models were conceived and designed within and from a typically white, western viewpoint. However, one agency in Vancouver, First Nations Emergency Services Society (FNESS), provides CISM debriefing interventions and training to Native emergency workers and Native victims of crises. The purpose of this study was to document how Native participants perceived the CISM model as FNESS presented it and to understand whether the intervention was culturally meaningful for the First Nations participants in the CISM sessions. This study examined whether the mainstream CISM model, which is currently used by this agency, is culturally meaningful for populations of another culture receiving it. Narrative interviews were conducted with participants to determine their reactions to the session, their feelings regarding information presented, and their ability to make cultural meaning of the experience. Narrative analysis was used to determine themes across individuals. Theoretical implications of this research include addressing the gap in the literature of the subjective experiences of participants in CISM; no studies have used a purely qualitative methodology to study this topic. Also, this study looked at the important issue of the cross-cultural application of a mainstream intervention, particularly for a population with a history of complex traumas. Practical implications include providing information into the perceived effectiveness of the FNESS approach to a CISM framework and providing an opportunity for recipients' opinions to be heard. / Education, Faculty of / Educational and Counselling Psychology, and Special Education (ECPS), Department of / Graduate

Ce mémoire expose les représentations des pratiques rituelles traditionnelles des Iroquoiens et des Algonquiens que les missionnaires jésuites français ont dévoilés dans leurs écrits. Parfois malgré eux, les missionnaires présentent dans leurs témoignages des êtres doté-e-s de pouvoirs religieux, que nous examinerons ici. Le territoire analysé est donc principalement celui des missions jésuites, soit la vallée laurentienne, le pays périphérique et la région des Grands Lacs, tranche d’Amérique qui restait essentiellement autochtone lors de la période qui nous intéresse, soit de 1632, date de la première relation du jésuite Paul Le Jeune, jusqu’à 1724, date de publication de l’ouvrage Mœurs des Sauvages de Joseph-François Lafitau. Cet examen minutieux des ouvrages jésuites a alors révélé, dans une perspective de l’histoire du genre, des extraits relatifs aux rituels et aux sphères d’activités des hommes et des femmes autochtones. Ces résultats sont par le fait même confrontés à de nombreuses études d’une part sur les Premières Nations, et d’autre part sur les jésuites et leurs missions nord-américaines. Cette jonction multidisciplinaire nous mène alors à se demander : que voient, ou ne voient pas, les missionnaires du rôle des hommes, des femmes, et dans une certaine mesure, des « hommesfemmes » et des « femmes-hommes » au sein des rituels autochtones, et dans quelles circonstances ? / This thesis presents representations of the traditional ritual practices of the Iroquoians and Algonquians that the French Jesuit missionaries have revealed in their writings. Sometimes in spite of themselves, the missionaries describe Indigenous people endowed with religious powers, descriptions which we will examine. The territory analyzed is therefore mainly that of the missions, namely the St. Lawrence Valley, the surrounding country and the Great Lakes region, a slice of America that remained largely Indigenous during the period of interest to us, namely from 1632, date of the first Relations with the Jesuit Paul Le Jeune, until 1724, the date of publication of the book Mœurs des Sauvages by Joseph-François Lafitau. This careful examination of the Jesuit works reveals, from a perspective of gender history, excerpts relating to rituals and spheres of activity of Aboriginal men and women. These results are confronted with numerous studies on First Nations or on the Jesuits and their North American missions. This multidisciplinary convergence then leads us to ask: what do missionaries see, or do not see, in the role of men, women, and to some extent, “men-women” and “women-men” within Aboriginal rituals, and in what circumstances?

Denna undersökning kommer undersöka ursprungsbefolkningen i Kanada och i USA, First Nations (Kanada) respektive Native Americans (USA). Fokuset ligger på olika lagar i respektive land som behandlat och behandlar dessa ursprungsbefolkningar. Ursprungsbefolkningar har diskriminerats genom historien och diskrimineras även idag vilketvi anser är värt att undersöka, då båda länderna idag är ledande inom arbetet kring mänskliga rättigheter. När lagar trätt i kraft har motiveringen varit att det ska gynna och skyddaursprungsbefolkningar, frågan är om det historisk verkligen varit så? Teorierna som valts är andrafiering, samt assimilation i jämförelse med kulturell pluralism och metoden är en innehållsanalys samt en komparativ metod. I denna undersökningen kommer en jämförelse aven lag från Kanada; the indian act, och lagar från USA; the general allotment act, the indian reorganization act och the indian civil rights act. Syftet är att jämföra hur ursprungsbefolkningarnas rättigheter har behandlats genom de nämnda lagarna ovan. Materialet är insamlat från regeringens egna webbsidor i både Kanada och USA och består av de juridiska dokument där lagarna beskrivs. I undersökningens analys framkommer det att det finns både skillnader och likheter i ländernas hantering, att lagarna har bidragit till andrafiering, samt att målet med lagarna har utvecklats från enbart assimilation som mål till mer kulturell pluralism. / This research will look into the indigenous peoples in Canada and The United States of America, First Nations (Canada) and Native Americans (United States). The focus is on different acts in both countries that deal with indigenous peoples rights. Indigenous people have been and still are being discriminated, which is something we believe is worthy of investigation, since both of these nations today are among the leading countries on the actions for human rights. When acts are ratified the motivation behind them is to benefit and protect those indiginous people, the question is, is it historically true? The theories chosen for this research are othering and assimilation in comparison with cultural pluralism and the methods are a content analysis and a comparative method. There will be a comparison between an act in Canada; the indian act, and acts from The United States; the general allotment act, the indian reorganization act and the indian civil rights act. The purpose is to compare the rights of indigenous peoples through the acts mentioned above. The material is collected from the states´ websites and are legal documents where the acts are described. The analysis shows that there are both similarities and differences in both nations policies towards the indigenous peoples, the acts have contributed to a rise in othering towards the natives, and how the main goal with the acts have shifted from assimilation towards cultural pluralism.

Museums are increasingly reckoning with their roles in the colonization of Indigenous peoples as they seek to engage diverse forms of participation and justify their social relevance. Many are turning to digital solutions to aid with these endeavors, including digital repatriation/return platforms. How users interact with these platforms to create knowledge and how these platforms contribute to a larger decolonial aspiration is not well understood. In this study, I explore these issues, drawing on postcolonial/decolonial theories and affordance theory, using the Reciprocal Research Network (RRN). The RRN was co-designed by the Museum of Anthropology, U’mista Cultural Society, Musqueam Indian Band, and Stó:lō Nation/Tribal Council to meet the need for museums to involve Indigenous communities in heritage work. With an actor-network theory approach, I interviewed nine stakeholders (users, developers, and steering group members) of the RRN and explored the platform and documents to identify RRN actors’ specific enactments of decolonial aspirations as affordances. My exploration revealed that the RRN is bound as a network by the Item Search, which allowed for multiple entry points into a vast collection of heritage objects. These multiple entryways broke down technical and cultural barriers to and allowed for plurality in interaction with heritage. The RRN also allowed a direct contestation of museums’ data ownership by allowing users to dictate how shared knowledge is used. The RRN also was deeply embedded in Vancouver, BC, and its surrounding area, where multiple points of offline/online interaction allowed for deep explorations of the histories of First Nations peoples and aided in projects aimed at their revival. However, platform logics and museums’ lack of participation in relationship-building threatened the decolonial aspirations of the RRN. Broadly, my findings indicate that the RRN, as a communal heritage platform, is a necessary step towards building relations with Indigenous communities that requires further participation on museums’ part to develop.

Problématique. La prévalence du diabète de type 2 (DT2) est plus de trois fois plus élevée chez les Premières Nations que chez la population générale au Canada. La qualité de l'alimentation des Premières Nations vivant sur-réserve est sous-optimale, dans un contexte où de multiples politiques coloniales ont forcé une transition alimentaire et rendu les aliments sains plus difficiles d'accès. Une alimentation de faible qualité s'accompagne généralement d'un risque accru de DT2. Objectifs. 1) Comparer la qualité de l’alimentation selon le statut diabétique autodéclaré chez les Premières Nations vivant sur-réserve au Canada. 2) Évaluer les associations entre la qualité de l’alimentation et le DT2 chez cette population. Méthodologie. Les données transversales ont été collectées entre 2009–2016 lors de l’« Étude sur l’alimentation, la nutrition et l’environnement chez les Premières Nations ». Des données de rappels de 24h ont été examinées pour 5 823 adultes (âgés de 19+ ans) membres de 84 communautés dans sept régions situées au sud du 60e parallèle au Canada. Les apports absolus en nutriments, la contribution énergétique des aliments traditionnels, l’indice canadien de saine alimentation (C-HEI) et la contribution énergétique des aliments ultra-transformés selon la classification NOVA ont été calculés pour chaque participant. Des statistiques descriptives et des modèles de régression logistique multiple ont permis d'évaluer les relations entre les mesures de la qualité de l'alimentation et le statut diabétique. Résultats. La prévalence du DT2 s’élevait à 17,9% chez les adultes des Premières Nations. Les individus diabétiques avaient une alimentation de qualité sous-optimale, mais tout de même légèrement supérieure à celle des non-diabétiques selon les apports en plusieurs nutriments clés et les trois indices globaux. Les personnes diabétiques consommaient également moins de boissons sucrées et de sucreries. Par rapport à ceux du tertile le plus bas, les adultes du tertile le plus élevé de l'indice C-HEI avaient un risque 53% plus élevé de présenter un DT2 (RC = 1,53, IC à 95 % : 1,09–2,15), après ajustement pour une gamme de variables. Conclusion. Chez les adultes des Premières Nations atteints du DT2, nos résultats suggèrent une amélioration des habitudes alimentaires après le diagnostic qui reflète les recommandations nutritionnelles pour les personnes atteintes de diabète. Cette étude est utile pour le co-développement de programmes d'intervention communautaires ciblant la prévention et la gestion du diabète d'une manière culturellement appropriée. / Background. The prevalence of type 2 diabetes (T2D) is more than three times higher among First Nations than in the general population in Canada. The diet quality of First Nations living on-reserve is nutritionally poor, in a context where multiple colonial policies have forced a dietary transition and made healthy foods more difficult to access. Low quality diets are generally associated with an increased risk of T2D. Objectives. 1) To compare diet quality among First Nations living on-reserve in Canada with and without T2D. 2) To measure associations between diet quality and T2D prevalence in this population. Methods. Cross-sectional data were collected between 2009–2016 during the "First Nations Food, Nutrition and Environment Study". Twenty-four-hour recall data were examined for 5,823 adults (aged 19+ years) from 84 communities in seven regions south of the 60th parallel in Canada. Absolute nutrient intakes, proportion of energy from traditional foods, the Canadian Healthy Eating Index (C-HEI) and proportion of energy from ultra-processed foods according to the NOVA classification were calculated for each participant. Descriptive statistics and multivariable logistic regression models assessed the relationships between diet quality measures and self-reported diabetes status. Results. The prevalence of T2D was 17.9% among First Nations adults. Participants with T2D had poor diet quality, but still slightly better than those without T2D based on intakes of several key nutrients and the three overall diet quality indices. Individuals with T2D also consumed fewer sugar-sweetened beverages and sweets. Compared with those in the lowest tertile, adults in the highest tertile of the C-HEI had 53% higher odds of T2D (OR = 1.53, 95% CI: 1.09-2.15), adjusting for sociodemographic and lifestyle covariates. Conclusion. Among First Nations with T2D, our results suggest an improvement in dietary habits after diagnosis that reflects dietary guidelines for people with diabetes. This is useful for the co-development of community-based intervention programs targeting the prevention and management of diabetes in a culturally appropriate way.

In collaboration with Elders, this study explores the great need for their meaningful partnership in STBBI (sexually transmitted and/or bloodborne infections) research. / Indigenous Elders are highly regarded as community leaders, traditional healers, and experts of Indigenous cultures and knowledges (Clark & Wylie 2021; Hadjipavlou et al., 2018; Lessard et al., 2021). The meaningful partnership of Elders in Indigenous STBBI (sexually transmitted and/or bloodborne infections) research has become increasingly recognized as an integral part of developing decolonial research processes, ensuring the implementation of Indigenous methods in STBBI research, and increasing the sexual health and wellbeing of Inuit, Métis, and First Nations communities through the development of culturally and ethically responsive research (Flicker et al., 2015; Hillier 2020; O’Brien et al., 2020). This study sought to expand upon and connect current literature with the expertise and guidance of Indigenous Elders who have been involved in STBBI research. Thirteen Elders were recruited nationwide to participate in three virtual Talking Circles to explore their meaningful partnership in Indigenous STBBI research and to offer guidance to researchers on how to strengthen these research partnerships in the future. Five overarching themes emerged from the thematic analysis of these Talking Circles: (1) Understanding the historical and ongoing impacts of colonialism and the need to decolonize STBBI research; (2) Prioritizing the knowledge and lived experience of Elders and Indigenous people living with STBBI throughout the research process; (3) Centering spirituality and ceremony in Indigenous STBBI research; (4) The importance of implementing Indigenous methodologies in STBBI research; and (5) Foregrounding Indigenous ways of being, knowing, and doing in STBBI research. This study offers future Indigenous STBBI researchers a robust foundation to build meaningful research partnerships with Elders to improve STBBI research and benefit the sexual health and wellbeing of Métis, Inuit, and First Nations communities. / Thesis / Master of Social Work (MSW)

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