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Previous findings suggest that gratitude is related to a multitude of benefits, such as improved psychological well-being, decreased psychological distress and more positive social relationships. The interest in gratitude as a research topic for psychological science is relatively new, and as such, there are many aspects of gratitude that need to be studied more. One of these areas is gender differences in trait gratitude. The main purpose of this study was to investigate possible gender differences in trait gratitude and in positive- and negative affect. In addition, a possible relationship between trait gratitude and affect is investigated, as well as cultural differences between Swedish students and international students studying in Sweden. This study was unable to find any differences in trait gratitude, however, a gender difference was found in experienced negative affect and cultural differences were found inboth positive- and negative affect. A positive relationship between trait gratitude and positive affect, as well as a negative relationship between trait gratitude and negative affect, were also found.

Det finns starka belägg för att tacksamhet kan skapa välbefinnande genom att exempelvis öka självkänsla, verka stressreducerande och skapa hälsosamma vanor. Att föra tacksamhetsdagbok kan vara ett sätt att öva upp ett tacksamt förhållningssätt genom att dagligen reflektera över tacksamhetsämnen och anteckna dessa. Syftet med denna studie var att beskriva kvinnors upplevelser av att föra tacksamhetsdagbok samt synliggöra vad som väcker deras tacksamhet. För att besvara syftet användes kvalitativ metod. En veckolång internetbaserad intervention med 19 deltagare ägde rum och datainsamlingen skedde genom insamling av dagböcker samt öppna brev. Det insamlade materialet analyserades med latent innehållsanalys och presenteras utifrån ett huvudtema ”Medveten tacksamhet sätter guldkant på tillvaron och ger ökad livskvalitet” samt fyra subteman; (1) starkare relationen till sig själv med uppskattning som spegel, (2) reflektion lyser upp tillvaron och skapar sammanhang, (3) ökad närvaro sätter värde på stort och smått och (4) tacksamhet föder tacksamhet och skapar vardagslycka. Resultatet visar att tacksamhetsdagbok föder en positiv livssyn som skapar lycka och ger ökat värde till vardag och omgivning. Den ger grund för en starkare relation till både sig själv, sin omgivning och till livet i stort vilket skapar uppskattning och välbefinnande. Resultatet diskuteras i förhållande till hälsopromotiva teorier med fokus på praktisk användning av tacksamhetsdagboken som ett hälsopromotivt redskap för att främja psykisk hälsa och välbefinnande. / There is strong evidence that gratitude can create wellbeing; for example by increasing self-esteem, reduce stress and enable healthy habits. Keeping a gratitude journal may be a way of practicing a grateful approach by reflecting on, and writing down, things to be grateful for on a daily basis. The aim of this study was to describe women’s experiences with keeping a gratitude journal and to shine light on what they feel grateful for. To address the aim of the study, a qualitative method was used. A one week long internet based intervention with 19 participants took place and the data collection consisted of both the journals of the participants as well as open letters. The collected material was analyzed through a latent content analysis and resulted in the development of one main theme “gratitude brightens up your day and increases quality of life” and four sub-themes; (1) a stronger relationship to oneself through a mirror of appreciation, (2) reflection shines light on life and creates coherence, (3) increased presence adds value to big and small things and (4) gratitude feeds gratitude and creates everyday happiness. The result shows that keeping a gratitude journal helps form a stronger relationship to oneself as well as to one’s surroundings and to life as a whole, thereby creating appreciation and wellbeing. The result is discussed in relation to health promotion theories with a focus on practical usage of the gratitude journal as a health promotion tool to be used for the purpose of strengthening mental health and wellbeing.

Cette thèse étudie le rôle des émotions morales dans le choix des agents lorsqu’ils font face à undilemme social. Lors des deux premiers chapitres, nous présentons une revue de littérature étendue, quimobilise des recherches en économie expérimentale, psychologie sociale et gestion des organisations, afin decerner comment les émotions morales, et en particulier la gratitude, influent sur la prise de décision des agentséconomiques. Dans le troisième chapitre, nous nous intéressons, à travers une revue des travaux en économiecomportementale, à l’intégration progressive du rôle des émotions dans les modèles économiques. Nousmontrons ainsi en quoi cette intégration, concomitante à l’apparition des modèles dits de « préférencessociales », permet de représenter de manière plus réaliste le processus de décision des agents, dans dessituations où les comportements économiques observés expérimentalement remettent en cause une visionégoïste et matérialiste des êtres humains. Dans le quatrième chapitre, nous présentons en détail le jeu du bienpublic, ainsi que les principaux résultats expérimentaux qui lui sont associés, pour mieux saisir en quoi ilconstitue un cadre propice à l’analyse formelle de l’influence des émotions morales. Enfin, notre travailaboutit, dans les cinquième et sixième chapitres, à l’élaboration d’un modèle original en économiecomportementale, qui vise à analyser comment l’émergence des émotions morales peut influencer, à la fois enstatique et en dynamique, le choix stratégique des individus dans le jeu du bien public et comment l’ajoutd’une phase de récompense peut renforcer la coopération entre les partenaires / This thesis studies the role of moral emotions in the decision making of agents when they face asocial dilemma. The first two chapters present a large literature review, which gathers research inexperimental economics, in social psychology and in the management of organizations, in order to delineatethe way moral emotions, and specifically gratitude, are able to influence the economical decision process. Inthe third chapter, through a review of works in the field of behavioral economics, we take an interest in theprogressive integration of moral emotions into economic modeling. We thus show how this integration, whichis concurrent with the emergence of social preferences models, allows agents' decision-making processes to berepresented in a more realistic way, in situations where the behaviors that are observed empirically challengean egoistic and materialistic vision of people. In chapter four, the public good game is presented in detail,along with the main experimental results associated with it, in order to understand why this game suits theformal analysis of moral emotions' influence. Finally, our work culminates in the development of an originalmodel in behavioral economics, during chapters five and six, which aims at assessing how the emergence ofmoral emotions can influence, both statically and dynamically, the strategic choice of individuals in the publicgood game, and how the introduction of a reward phase can promote cooperation and help individuals todevelop good interpersonal relationships.

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社會支持是個人調節壓力的重要資源，過去研究顯示知覺支持高的人對支持行為記憶較好、較正向地詮釋社會訊息。本研究假設感恩心應是影響知覺支持的因素，感恩心的認知風格使人注意、憶念得自他人的照顧與關愛，提高對知覺支持的滿意；感恩的人單純地對人親善、回報他人，建立較多社會資源，因而支持人數較多。本研究共進行二部分研究： 研究一編制感恩心量表，探索感恩心的因素、內涵與類型。以118位大學生為預試樣本、341位大學生為正式樣本。結果顯示感恩心的因素包括「對人事物的感恩感受與認知習慣」、「對人感恩與報恩」、「感恩負向人事」。第一、二因素共同隱涵「不把一切視為理所當然」的核心信念、追本溯源的歸因能力，以及經常注意、記憶益處或給予者的認知習慣。第二因素涉及同理他人內心情感的能力；也包含報恩，個人感到被照顧、關愛而有感恩情緒，進而促發個人希望回報對方。第三因素注意到自己的成長來自於負面狀況提供了機會，雖然給予者無正向意圖。三個因素共同的認知風格是辨認出人事物對自己的正向經驗和結果有貢獻，將益處被評估為正向且將益處歸因於他者，而產生感恩的愉悅情緒。且所有受試者在上述三個因素分數上，可分成七種類型。 研究二探討不同背景變項大學生在感恩心分數上的差異，及感恩心和知覺支持的關係，以341位大學生為問卷施測正式樣本。結果顯示只有感恩心、對人感恩與報恩、對人事物的感恩感受與認知風格對支持人數、支持滿意度有預測力。感恩心高的人在注意、歸因、同理、記憶上的認知風格使他容易辨認出別人對自己正向結果的貢獻與善意，知覺支持滿意度較高，也建立較多社會資源而支持人數較多。 研究結果顯示：協助大學生培養感恩心，應可擴大知覺支持，使之回復到應有的份量，進而緩衝壓力，也促使學生有回報他人的向社會行為，增加社會資源。根據感恩心因素、內涵，本研究針對大學生個人、諮商人員、父母提出培養感恩心的數點建議。 / Social support is one of the important resources for individuals to moderate stress. Past researches showed that people who perceive more support recall other’s supportive behaviors better and interpreter social information more positive. This research hypothesized that gratitude influences perceived support. The grateful cognitive style makes people attend to the kindness of others and remember it well. Grateful persons are kind toward others, and are good to others for appreciation. Thus, they build more social resources, and have more available supporters. Study 1 created Gratitude Inventory, and explored the factors, implication, and styles of gratitude. 341 college students completed the Gratitude Inventory. The major findings were summarized as follows : First, the factor of gratitude includes : 1. The grateful feeling and cognitive habits toward people, events and things. 2. Gratitude and return kindness toward people. 3. Gratitude toward negative events and people. Second, there are seven kinds of gratitude styles. Study 2 investigated the relationship between gratitude and perceived support. 341college students completed the Gratitude Inventory, Social Support Questionnaire and Social Desirability Inventory. The result showed that grateful feeling and cognitive habits toward people, events and things and Gratitude and return kindness toward people are effective predictors to the numbers of available supporter and the satisfaction of perceived support. These findings showed that, helping college students developing gratitude will enlarge their perceived support, thus buffer the effect of stress. It will also make students behave more prosocially, thus build more social resources. According to the conclusions of the main findings, several suggestions are provided for college students, parents, counselors in the Universities, and future research.

Thèse numérisée par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

Gratitude and indebtedness have been treated as similar constructs that occur in social exchange, but little work has examined how these constructs are independent from each other. Relatedly, how a person evaluates the components of a social exchange – the benefactor and benefit – can vary. Two exploratory studies examined affective, cognitive and behavioral measurement during a social exchange to test whether they were associated with gratitude and indebtedness. Participants completed a distribution game for which they gave and received tickets for a raffle with a fictitious partner. Study 1 (N=34) findings indicated that gratitude was associated with positive affect, but that positive affect was a better predictor of exchange behavior. Indebtedness was more closely associated with cognition and was not a significant predictor of exchange behavior. Positive affect and positive thought were associated with a positive attitude toward the exchange partner, whereas positive thought alone was associated with a positive attitude toward the benefit (i.e., raffle tickets). Study 2 (N=60) used a between-subjects variable to see if a manipulation involving the benefit affected responses. Three conditions were used: gratitude, indebtedness, or control. Participants in the gratitude and indebtedness conditions evaluated the partner and the tickets more positively compared to a control condition. Gratitude is directly associated with positive affect and inversely associated with negative cognition, whereas indebtedness is directly associated with positive affect across the three conditions. Three components of attitude were associated with the overall evaluation of the benefactor across conditions. In contrast, affect and cognition alone provided the best model for predicting overall evaluation of the benefit. Despite some of the limitations of this study (e.g., sample size), preliminary evidence suggests associations between affective and cognitive components and social exchange behavior. Limitations stemming from partial online data collection are described and discussed.

Neste trabalho, nos dedicamos ao estudo da generosidade, investigando, em um contexto psicogenético, os juízos morais das crianças relativos aos seguintes temas: a generosidade em contraposição à justiça (para consigo mesmo) e generosidade e gratidão. Participaram desta pesquisa 60 alunos de uma escola particular da cidade do Rio de Janeiro RJ, com 6, 9 e 12 anos, igualmente divididos quanto ao sexo e à idade. Realizamos entrevistas individuais baseadas em histórias sobre os temas em questão. Dos resultados encontrados, destacamos que, diante de um conflito entre a generosidade e a justiça (para consigo mesmo), os juízos das crianças de 6 anos nos remetem mais à generosidade, e os critérios utilizados pelos mais velhos, para hierarquizar as duas dimensões morais, estão atrelados a uma noção geral de justiça. No que diz respeito ao tema da generosidade e gratidão, verificamos que a maioria das crianças de todas as idades pesquisadas não atribui obrigatoriedade ao agradecimento e/ ou à retribuição a uma manifestação de generosidade. Embora desprovida de obrigatoriedade, a retribuição é indicada e admirada, nas suas variadas formas, pelos participantes. Essa indicação e admiração, todavia, não fazem da retribuição um critério que os leve a agir generosamente, nos mostrando, assim, sinais de autonomia nos juízos relacionados à generosidade desde a mais tenra infância. Ao indicarem um agradecimento ou uma retribuição à ação generosa, as crianças mais novas ora ressaltam o aspecto concreto da recompensa, ora se referem à materialidade das regras da polidez, ainda exteriores à consciência. Dessa forma, ora visualizamos a incipiência de suas ferramentas intelectuais, ora nos deparamos com características da heteronomia infantil em seus juízos sobre o tema. A recompensa com uma ação concreta predomina nas sugestões espontâneas de agradecimento e/ ou retribuição das crianças de 9 e 12 anos, e a demonstração verbal de reconhecimento prevalece entre os mais velhos quando comparada exclusivamente à recompensa material. Tal reconhecimento pressupõe uma avaliação das intenções daquele que agiu generosamente, imprescindível na manifestação da gratidão. Como as crianças mais novas ainda conferem maior importância aos efeitos de um ato do que à intenção de seu autor, parece-nos válido afirmar que não é a gratidão propriamente dita que comparece em seus discursos, mas uma concepção mais elementar da virtude, o que nos leva a admitir um desenvolvimento da mesma ao longo da infância. Nossos resultados também confirmam a íntima relação do sentimento de simpatia com a generosidade, já apontada por outras pesquisas da área. Uma comoção com o sofrimento alheio comparece nas argumentações das crianças que decidiram pela ação generosa para com o outro. Com porcentagens altas em todas as faixas etárias pesquisadas, esse argumento predomina na menor idade e decresce nas idades seguintes. Tal resultado nos mostra que é mesmo a simpatia que inspira as crianças pequenas a decidirem pela manifestação da virtude. Essa sensibilidade para com outrem também interfere nos juízos dos participantes mais velhos, mas, no transcurso do desenvolvimento, princípios de reciprocidade e justiça também passam a regular decisões que culminam na generosidade / In this work, we dedicate ourselves to the study of generosity, investigating, in a psychogenetic context, children\'s moral judgment relating to the following themes: generosity as opposed to justice (for oneself) and generosity and gratitude. Participated in this survey, 60 pupils from a private school in the city of Rio de Janeiro - RJ, with 6, 9 and 12 years of age, equally divided as to sex and age. We conducted one-on-one interviews based on stories about the themes in question. Of the results found, we highlighted that, faced with a conflict between generosity and justice (to oneself), the judgment of 6 year old children refer to generosity, and the criteria used by the older ones, to organize into a hierarchy the two moral dimensions, are tied to a general notion of justice. On the subject of generosity and gratitude, we find that the majority of children of all ages surveyed do not assign an obligation as to what concerns gratitude and/or consideration as a reciprocation to an expression of generosity. Although devoid of obligation, reciprocation is indicated and admired, in its various forms, by the participants. This indication and admiration, however, does not make reciprocation a criterion that makes them act generously, thus showing us signs of autonomy in judgments related to generosity from an early childhood. When indicating an appreciation or a reciprocation to the generous action, younger children either point out the specific aspects of reward, or refer to the materiality of the rules of politeness, still exterior from their consciousness. In this way, we see how incipient are their intellectual tools, or we are faced with characteristics of infant heteronomy on their judgment of the theme. Rewards with a concrete action predominates in spontaneous suggestions of gratitude and/or reciprocation in children of 9 and 12 years old, and a verbal demonstration of gratitude prevails among the elderly when compared exclusively to material reward. Such recognition requires an evaluation of the intentions of that who acted generously, essential in the expressions of gratitude. As younger children still attach great importance to the effects of an act than to the intention of its author, it is valid to say that it is not gratitude itself that appears on their speech, but a more elementary conception of virtue, which leads us to admit its development throughout childhood. Our results also confirm the close relationship of the feeling of sympathy with generosity, already pointed out by other researches in this area. A commotion with the suffering of others appears in the arguments of children who decided for the generous action with each other. With high percentages in all age groups surveyed, this argument predominates in the lowest age and decreases in the following ages. This result shows that it is sympathy that inspires the young children to decide for the manifestation of virtue. This sensitivity to others also interferes in the judgment of the older participants, but, in the course of the development, principles of reciprocity and justice also regulate decisions that culminate in generosity

Este estudo investigou, em uma perspectiva construtivista, se existe desenvolvimento das relações entre gratidão e humildade na infância. Participaram 28 crianças, distribuídas em três grupos etários (6, 9 e 12 anos), pareadas por sexo. Utilizaram-se duas histórias: em uma delas, o benfeitor foi humilde; na outra, o benfeitor não foi humilde. Cada história foi seguida de uma entrevista semiestruturada. Evidenciou-se que o sentimento de obrigatoriedade de retribuir um favor apresentou variações dependendo do tipo de benfeitor (humilde ou não-humilde). Houve uma maior tendência das crianças mais velhas levarem em conta a humildade e a falta dessa virtude quando comparadas com as crianças mais novas. Ao explicitar-se a diferença entre as histórias, a frequência deste tipo de resposta aumentou em todas as idades, além de ter surgido o tema da generosidade. Os resultados sugeriram que existe um desenvolvimento das relações entre gratidão e humildade na infância. / Based on a constructivist approach, this study examined whether the relations between gratitude and humility develop over childhood. Twenty-eight children, divided into three age groups (6, 9 and 12 years old), participated in this research. We used two vignettes: in one of them, the benefactor was humble; in the other one, the benefactor was not humble. Each story was followed by a semi-structured interview. The feeling of obligation to return a favor showed variations depending on the type of benefactor (humble or not humble). There was a greater tendency for older children to take into account the benefactor’s humility and the lack of this virtue when compared to younger children. When the differences between the vignettes were made explicit, the frequency of this type of response increased in all ages and the theme of generosity appeared. Results showed that the relations between gratitude and humility develop over childhood.