Estudam-se aqui as escritas de Gustave Flaubert e de Machado de Assis, considerando a ironia a estratégia narrativa comum a ambos os autores. Evidenciado na figura da comparação, o procedimento irônico de suas escritas joga com a verossimilhança e com a expectativa do leitor para sucessivamente frustrá-las. Desfazendo as semelhanças discursivas que ativariam a causalidade da verossimilhança, conforme Aristóteles, a ironia efetivada por meio dessa figura de linguagem revela o jogo do pastiche de suas escritas e desloca, assim, a representação semântica da narrativa. A corrupção da mímesis como fundamento do discurso literário faz de suas escritas uma proposta de outro tipo de verossimilhança, não mais motivada pela coincidência das semelhanças discursivas, o que ressalta, deste modo, seu gesto político. Pois, a política da escrita não está no que o autor quis dizer, mas na reverberação do texto no leitor, reverberação que impõe o silenciamento das unidades de sentido já estabelecidas pela repetição das ideias feitas. Entenda-se também com isso que o estudo aqui empreendido propõe a alternativa crítica de se abordar escritas de estilos e práticas diferentes, sem que se tenham necessariamente em vista citações explícitas ou implícitas, influência e fonte literária. Porque a força da escrita literária não está exclusivamente em sua representabilidade semântica, mas na libertação do simbólico, que evidencia a historicidade dos discursos. / Gustave Flaubert and Machado de Assis´s writings are studied here taking into consideration the irony as a narrative strategy common to both authors. The ironical procedure of their writings plays with verisimilitude, and this is made evident in the figure of speech of comparison and a continuous frustration of the reader´s expectation. By undoing the discursive similitude which activates the verisimilitude´s causality, according to Aristotle, the irony made effective by that figure of speech reveals a pastiche play and dislocates, in that sense, the semantic representation of the narrative. The mimesis´s corruption as substance of literary discourse makes their writings a proposal of another kind of verisimilitude, no longer motivated by the coincidence of the discursive similitude, which highlights its political act. The politics of writing is not in what the author meant, but in the text´s reverberation in the reader, which imposes a silence in the units of meaning already established by the repetition of the received ideas. It is also to be understood that the study here undertaken proposes an alternative criticism in order to tackle writings of different styles and practices, without necessarily having explicit or implicit quotations, influence and literary source. This is because the force of the literary writing is not exclusively in its semantic representation, but in the liberation of the symbolic, making the historicity of discourses evident.

Este trabalho analisa o surgimento da \"psicologia social\" francesa na última década do século XIX, através de seus representantes mais conhecidos, Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904) e Gustave Le Bon (1841-1931), mas também de autores que, pertencentes ao mesmo meio, mantiveram com eles afinidades intelectuais, sociais e teóricas. Parto do princípio de que o estudo de um determinado tema, mesmo que não institucionalizado, como é o caso da \"psicologia social\", deve ser compreendido a partir da estrutura do campo intelectual no período, no caso, em processo de autonomização e profissionalização a partir dos anos 80. Isso significa que, no campo disciplinar, a grande referência é o corte entre o pólo universitário e o pólo \"livre\", o que predispôs a disputas diversas por cadeiras e cursos por parte dos representantes das várias matérias ainda não institucionalizadas. A \"psicologia social\" é uma dessas matérias que têm vigência e legitimidade restritas a um determinado grupo e período da história do campo, ou seja, é uma matéria típica de posições intelectualmente dominadas, não universitárias, e cujo fim era o combate pela ascensão à universidade contra o seu principal concorrente, a sociologia durkheimiana. Dado o caráter fluido das definições disciplinares, defino o campo das \"ciências sociais\" pelo combate entre as disciplinas novas - a economia, a psicologia e a sociologia - e delas com as antigas disciplinas - a história e a filosofia - e identifico duas grandes correntes e práticas nas ciências sociais \"livres\": a que pertence ao poder social e a que pertence ao poder intelectual. Em segundo lugar, mostro como essas posições extra-universitárias correspondem a estratégias no campo editorial, tendo em vista que as editoras, revistas e coleções congregaram os grupos interessados nesse combate. Concluo que a \"psicologia social\", por não ter conseguido se instituir como disciplina universitária nesse período, teve sua sobrevivência condicionada à constituição de um público não universitário, através de coleções, de revistas ou de instituições \"livres\" de ensino. Dada a falta de credenciais acadêmicas, a sobrevivência desses grupos no campo intelectual exigiu um investimento brutal em relações sociais. Como corolário desse processo, as representações tenderam a valorizar seja a função técnica seja a missão cultural das ciências sociais em detrimento de sua autonomização no campo científico. É por essa razão que a \"psicologia social\" hipostasiou o papel das elites e da liberdade individual contra as multidões e as determinações coletivas, elaborando uma representação invertida da posição que esses autores ocuparam no campo intelectual. / This thesis analyses the emergency of the French \"social psychology\" in the last decade of the XIXth century, particularly through the work of its most renewed authors, Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904) and Gustave Le Bon (1841-1931), but also through the work of authors who, belonging to the same network, had with them intellectual, social and theoretical identities. I suppose that the study of a theme, even if it is not institucionalized, as it is the case in \"social psychology\", has to be based on the structure of the French intellectual field, which means, from the process of autonomization and profissionalization starting in the 80ies. This implies that, in the disciplinary field, there is a main polarization between the university positions and the \"free\" positions, the last ones fighting for chairs and carreers at the university. The \"social psychology\" is one of those subjects that had legitimity limited to a determined group and period of the history of the field, that means, is a typical subject of intellectual dominated positions, non universitarian, and whose purpose was to win positions against durkheimian sociology. Considering the undefined character of these disciplines, I call \"social sciences\" the battles between the new disciplines - economy, psychology and sociology - and between them and the old and institucionalized ones - history and philosophy - and I identify two main groups and practices in the \"free\" social sciences: the one who belongs to the social power and the one who belongs to the intellectual one. Besides, I show that these extra-universitarian positions correspond to strategies in the editorial field, because the editeurs, reviews and collections have aggregated the same two groups and fights. I concluded that \"social psychology\", for the reason it could not be institucionalized, had to survive in the intellectual field by constructing a public non universitarian through collections, reviews and \"free\" schools. Considering the lack of academic credencials, the surviving of these groups in the intellectual field demanded a brutal investment in social relationships. As a consequence, their representations tended to emphasize the technical function or the cultural mission in social sciences against their autonomization in the scientific field. The result is that \"social psychology\" gave too much value to the role of the elites and of the individual freedom against the crowds and the collective determinations, producing a reversed representation of the position these authors occupied in the intellectual field.

[pt] O presente trabalho pretende delinear os principais fundamentos de um programa de ascese de Louise Colet (1810 – 1876) esboçado por Gustave Flaubert (1821 – 1880). Com este intuito, debruça-se sobre a correspondência escrita por Flaubert a Louise, com quem o escritor manteve uma relação amorosa ao longo de oito anos. Assim, o exame das missivas traz à luz o programa de ascese que se estabelece através da intensa relação de intimidade entre os dois escritores. Sob este aspecto, examinam-se os aconselhamentos que se encontram nas cartas, através de um diálogo com o pensamento de Pierre Hadot e de Michel Foucault. Pela via da relação de amor erótico entre Gustave e Louise, a ascese que se apresenta à escritora, é, ao mesmo tempo, também exercícios espirituais para Flaubert, do mesmo modo que o são para a escritora. Deste movimento de busca por aprimoramento pessoal que se revela pela análise das correspondências, apreende-se a importância da relação amorosa para a afirmação e continuidade da ascese. Tal busca tem como finalidade principal possibilitar uma completa modificação da personalidade, conduzindo-a na direção de uma vida vivida virtuosamente, i.e., a vida que encontra na otimização da realização do ofício um prazer, segundo as conceituações de Aristóteles em Ética a Nicômaco. Para tanto, os estudos de Jacques Lacan sobre estrutura e cadeia significante proporcionam os instrumentos para a análise do texto das cartas. / [fr] Le présent travail vise à définir les principales bases d un programme d ascèse de Louise Colet (1810 - 1876) esquissé par Gustave Flaubert (1821 - 1880). À cet effet, on se penche sur la correspondance écrite par Flaubert à Louise, avec qui l écrivain a entretenu une relation amoureuse pendant huit ans. Ainsi, l analyse des missives met en lumière le programme d ascèse qui est établi à travers l intense rapport d intimité entre les deux écrivains. A cet égard, on examine les conseils trouvés dans les lettres, à travers un dialogue avec la pensée de Pierre Hadot et Michel Foucault. Par la voie de la relation amoureuse érotique entre Gustave et Louise, l ascèse qui se présente à l écrivaine est aussi en même temps des exercices spirituels pour Flaubert, aussi bien que pour l écrivaine. De ce mouvement de recherche d amélioration personnelle révélée par l analyse des correspondances, on apprend l importance du rapport amoureux pour l affirmation et la continuité de l ascèse. Une telle recherche a pour but principal de rendre possible une modification complète de la personnalité, en la menant vers une vie vécue vertueusement, c est-à-dire la vie qui trouve dans l optimisation de la réalisation de l office un plaisir, selon les conceptions d Aristote dans l Ethique à Nicomaque. Pour ce faire, les études de Jacques Lacan sur la structure et la chaîne signifiante fournissent les outils pour l analyse du texte des lettres.

Este trabalho analisa o surgimento da \"psicologia social\" francesa na última década do século XIX, através de seus representantes mais conhecidos, Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904) e Gustave Le Bon (1841-1931), mas também de autores que, pertencentes ao mesmo meio, mantiveram com eles afinidades intelectuais, sociais e teóricas. Parto do princípio de que o estudo de um determinado tema, mesmo que não institucionalizado, como é o caso da \"psicologia social\", deve ser compreendido a partir da estrutura do campo intelectual no período, no caso, em processo de autonomização e profissionalização a partir dos anos 80. Isso significa que, no campo disciplinar, a grande referência é o corte entre o pólo universitário e o pólo \"livre\", o que predispôs a disputas diversas por cadeiras e cursos por parte dos representantes das várias matérias ainda não institucionalizadas. A \"psicologia social\" é uma dessas matérias que têm vigência e legitimidade restritas a um determinado grupo e período da história do campo, ou seja, é uma matéria típica de posições intelectualmente dominadas, não universitárias, e cujo fim era o combate pela ascensão à universidade contra o seu principal concorrente, a sociologia durkheimiana. Dado o caráter fluido das definições disciplinares, defino o campo das \"ciências sociais\" pelo combate entre as disciplinas novas - a economia, a psicologia e a sociologia - e delas com as antigas disciplinas - a história e a filosofia - e identifico duas grandes correntes e práticas nas ciências sociais \"livres\": a que pertence ao poder social e a que pertence ao poder intelectual. Em segundo lugar, mostro como essas posições extra-universitárias correspondem a estratégias no campo editorial, tendo em vista que as editoras, revistas e coleções congregaram os grupos interessados nesse combate. Concluo que a \"psicologia social\", por não ter conseguido se instituir como disciplina universitária nesse período, teve sua sobrevivência condicionada à constituição de um público não universitário, através de coleções, de revistas ou de instituições \"livres\" de ensino. Dada a falta de credenciais acadêmicas, a sobrevivência desses grupos no campo intelectual exigiu um investimento brutal em relações sociais. Como corolário desse processo, as representações tenderam a valorizar seja a função técnica seja a missão cultural das ciências sociais em detrimento de sua autonomização no campo científico. É por essa razão que a \"psicologia social\" hipostasiou o papel das elites e da liberdade individual contra as multidões e as determinações coletivas, elaborando uma representação invertida da posição que esses autores ocuparam no campo intelectual. / This thesis analyses the emergency of the French \"social psychology\" in the last decade of the XIXth century, particularly through the work of its most renewed authors, Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904) and Gustave Le Bon (1841-1931), but also through the work of authors who, belonging to the same network, had with them intellectual, social and theoretical identities. I suppose that the study of a theme, even if it is not institucionalized, as it is the case in \"social psychology\", has to be based on the structure of the French intellectual field, which means, from the process of autonomization and profissionalization starting in the 80ies. This implies that, in the disciplinary field, there is a main polarization between the university positions and the \"free\" positions, the last ones fighting for chairs and carreers at the university. The \"social psychology\" is one of those subjects that had legitimity limited to a determined group and period of the history of the field, that means, is a typical subject of intellectual dominated positions, non universitarian, and whose purpose was to win positions against durkheimian sociology. Considering the undefined character of these disciplines, I call \"social sciences\" the battles between the new disciplines - economy, psychology and sociology - and between them and the old and institucionalized ones - history and philosophy - and I identify two main groups and practices in the \"free\" social sciences: the one who belongs to the social power and the one who belongs to the intellectual one. Besides, I show that these extra-universitarian positions correspond to strategies in the editorial field, because the editeurs, reviews and collections have aggregated the same two groups and fights. I concluded that \"social psychology\", for the reason it could not be institucionalized, had to survive in the intellectual field by constructing a public non universitarian through collections, reviews and \"free\" schools. Considering the lack of academic credencials, the surviving of these groups in the intellectual field demanded a brutal investment in social relationships. As a consequence, their representations tended to emphasize the technical function or the cultural mission in social sciences against their autonomization in the scientific field. The result is that \"social psychology\" gave too much value to the role of the elites and of the individual freedom against the crowds and the collective determinations, producing a reversed representation of the position these authors occupied in the intellectual field.

Originally presented as the author's Thesis (doctoral)--Johan Wolfgang von Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main, 1976. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 275-280). Also issued online.

Den västerländska kanon har varit ett omdiskuterat begrepp ända sedan dess intåg i litteraturvetenskapliga kretsar - en debatt som pågår ännu idag. Debatten har främst kommit att handla om kanons legitimitet i förhållande till dess representation, då den sedan uppkomsten främst har representerats av litteratur skriven av västerländska män. År 2004 uppmärksammades debatten i Norden, vilket resulterade i att Danmark fick en etablerad kulturkanon, som syftar till att representera det danska kulturarvet. Detta inspirerade till en liknande debatt i Sverige, där folkpartisten Cecilia Wikström lade fram ett förslag på en liknande svensk kulturkanon för att därmed stärka det svenska kulturarvet. Detta förslag möttes av kritik från olika håll, vilket vi undersöker i denna uppsats för att ge en bild av kanons många aspekter. Uppsatsen är uppdelad i två delar: en makroanalys och en mikroanalys. Makroanalysen undersöker forskning kring kanonteorier, kanondefinitioner, kanoniska egenskaper och kanonrepresentation, för att kunna erhålla en tolkning och vidare en förståelse för vad som utgör kanon. Mikroanalysen är en undersökning som utmärker och legitimerar en romans plats i kanon, utifrån resultaten i studiens första del. Litteraturobjektet är Gustave Flauberts Madame Bovary från 1857, då den förekommer på flera kanonlistor, och är både hyllad och kritiserad. Litteraturen vi granskar består av etablerad litteratur som är representerad i kanon i egenskap av en manlig västerländsk författare, för att undersöka i vilken mån de kanoniska egenskaperna går att utröna i verket, och med detta motivera dess plats i kanon. Makroanalysen visar att kanon fortfarande till största del är representerad av västerländska män. Detta, visar forskningen, beror på traditionella urvalsprocesser som inte alltid följer samhällets utveckling mot jämlikhet och mångfald. Likväl har det uppstått en del alternativa listor och forskning som bidrar till att de försummade författarskapen representeras i kanon. Mikroanalysen visar korrelationen med resultaten i makroanalysen. Madame Bovary besitter de kanoniska egenskaper som eftersträvas i kanon genom stil och särart, tradition, värderingar, kulturarv samt står emot tidens tand. Resultaten av studien visar att det inte alltid handlar om de kanoniska egenskaperna per se, utan att det snarare är vad ett litterärt verk representerar i relation till det litterära fältet, eller den kanoniska diskursen, som avgör vad som anses vara kanoniskt eller ej. / The Western canon has been a debatable topic ever since its entry into the field of literature - a debate that is still on-going. The focus of this particular debate has primarily been about the canons legitimacy in relation to its representation, since it is mostly represented by literature written by Western males. In 2004, the debate was brought to attention in Scandinavia, which resulted in an established culture canon in Denmark, which intended to represent the Danish cultural heritage. This inspired a similar debate in Sweden, where the politician Cecilia Wikström suggested a similar Swedish cultural canon, in order to strengthen the Swedish cultural heritage. This suggestion was met by critique from different directions, which our study is partly based on. This thesis study is divided into two parts: a macroanalysis, and a microanalysis. The macroanalysis analyses research about canon theories, canon definitions, canonical qualities, and canon representation, in order to establish an interpretation and understanding of the constituents of the canon. The microanalysis is a study that distinguishes and legitimizes a novel’s place in the canon, based on the results from the macroanalysis. The literary object of this study is Gustave Flaubert’s Madame Bovary from 1857, since it is recurrent in many lists of canonical works, and has been both praised and criticised throughout the years. The literature that is studied is established literature represented in the canon as a work of a Western male writer, in order to study how the canonical qualities are represented in the novel, and thus legitimise its place in the canon. The results from the macroanalysis show that the Western canon is still mostly represented by Western males. Research indicates that this is due to traditional sampling processes, which do not always follow the development in society towards equality and cultural diversity. However, some alternative canonical lists have emerged, as well as research that has contributed to further representation of previously neglected authorships to the canon. The microanalysis shows the correlation with the results from the macroanalysis. The canonical qualities of style and peculiar nature, tradition, values, cultural heritage and standing the test of time, are all represented in Madame Bovary. The results of this study indicate that it is not always about the canonical qualities per se; it seems to be more about what a literary work represents in relation to the literary field, or the canonical discourse, that determines what is considered as being canonical or not.

Originally presented as the author's Thesis (doctoral)--Johan Wolfgang von Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main, 1976. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 275-280).

L’objectif de cette thèse est d’analyser les conceptions de l’intervention publique des économistes libéraux français dans la deuxième moitié du XIXe siècle.Le premier chapitre expose leurs trois conceptions différentes de l’intervention publique. A partir de leurs analyses des attributions légitimes de l’Etat, nous proposons une typologie qui distingue une « orthodoxie » s’en tenant aux fonctions régaliennes, un libéralisme « régulateur », et un libéralisme plus « interventionniste ». Nous nous demandons si cette typologie reste pertinente quand ces économistes débattent de leurs problèmes pratiques de prédilection.Le second chapitre est ainsi consacré à l’analyse de la fiscalité par les économistes libéraux français. Cette analyse est en elle-même extrêmement riche, et nous mettons en avant, en particulier, les contributions formalisées de trois d’entre eux : Cournot, Dupuit et Fauveau.Nous étudions dans un troisième chapitre les positions de nos économistes libéraux sur l’émission, l’escompte et l’étalon monétaire. Nous montrons que leurs divergences théoriques s’expliquent par une préférence pour la règle ou pour l’intervention discrétionnaire.Le quatrième chapitre étudie la question des droits de propriété, en particulier de l’héritage et de la propriété intellectuelle. Nous faisons apparaître une opposition entre les partisans d’un Etat régulateur et ceux d’un Etat protecteur des droits naturels.Finalement, sur chacun des thèmes envisagés, il apparaît que la frontière entre « orthodoxie » et « hétérodoxie » libérales est moins figée qu’on ne pouvait le penser. / The object of this dissertation is to analyze the conceptions of public intervention in the French liberal School in the second half of the 19th century. The first chapter is devoted to the exposition of three different views of these economists on State. We elaborate a typology relying on their analyses of the legitimate State attributes; this typology distinguishes an “orthodoxy” considering the only provision of security and justice, a “regulatory” liberalism, and a more “interventionist” liberalism. We question this typology, wondering if it remains relevant when our liberal economists discuss the practical questions of their time.Thus the second chapter of our study presents to the liberal analyses of taxation. We highlight the richness of the French thought on this topic. We particularly put forward the formalized contributions of three of them: Cournot, Dupuit and Fauveau. In the third chapter we study the positions of our economists on the question of the issuing of banknotes, on credit, and on the metallic standard. We show that their theoretical divergences are well explained by their preference for a rule or for a discretionary public intervention.Our last chapter investigates the question of property rights. By examining their ideas on inheritance and on intellectual property, we emphasize the opposition inside this School between the advocates of a regulatory State and the defenders of the State as a protector of natural rights. Finally the boundary between the liberal “orthodoxy” and the liberal “heterodoxy” is less steady than what we could think.

Cette étude a pour objet d'analyser les liens entre conte et science-fiction. Nous analyserons un corpus de trois ensembles narratifs particulièrement représentatifs d'un imaginaire contemporain en pleine mutation, en Allemagne (avec les contes des frères Grimm), en Nouvelle-Angleterre (avec les nouvelles de Lovecraft) et en France (avec les récits de Gustave Le Rouge). Nos recherches valoriseront les approches littéraires et les héritages esthétiques qui s’opèrent entre la fin du XVIIIe siècle et le début du XXe siècle, accompagnant la transformation complète du statut de merveilleux dans une civilisation européenne en train de s’industrialiser. Dans cette optique, nous retournerons aux origines des contes et nous nous interrogerons sur la théorie littéraire, plus précisément sur la théorie des genres de la fiction narrative en prose, en diachronie historique. En les prenant pour hypothèses en vue d'analyser les liens entre littérature, influences et aspirations, voilà qui nous amènera à mettre l'accent sur les dispositifs de la mise en forme littéraire du texte de science-fiction, de ses thèmes et de son processus de légitimité littéraire / This study analyzes the links between storytelling and science fiction. We will analyze a corpus of three narrative sets that are particularly representative of a contemporary imagination undergoing radical change: in Germany with the Grimm brothers' tales, in New England with Lovecraft's tales, and in France with Le Rouge Gustave's stories. Our research focuses on the aesthetic legacies and the transformation of the wonder that take place between the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 20th century

La présente thèse propose la première monographie sur la société des Buveurs d’eau. Cette association artistique de secours mutuels rassembla dans le Paris des années 1840 onze peintres, sculpteurs et écrivains débutants qui, pour la plupart, allaient entrer dans l’histoire non pas grâce à leurs œuvres, mais parce qu’ils allaient devenir les exemples d’un type de créateur : l’artiste ou l’écrivain bohème. Ce fut leur sort à cause d’un livre que l’un d’eux publia en 1851, et ce fut à leur grand dam et au dam de l’histoire. Les Scènes de la vie de bohème d’Henry Murger fondent depuis plus d’un siècle et demi l’idée que l’on se fait de la première bohème parisienne. Elles doivent leur popularité originale à leur adaptation au théâtre de boulevard en 1849 et leur popularité durable à leur adaptation à l’opéra en 1896, dans La Bohème de Puccini. Elles doivent leur place dans les travaux universitaires aux qualités de document et de tableau de mœurs qu’on leur attribue depuis leur parution. Ce sont d’abord ces qualités du livre de Murger, largement admises sans être historiquement vérifiées, et souvent amplifiées depuis trente ans par l’histoire des représentations et par la sociologie, qui rendent les Buveurs d’eau aussi illustres qu’inconnus. C’est également l’obscurité des œuvres de ces hommes, majoritairement artistes, qui éloigne les chercheurs – et en premier lieu les historiens de l’art – de l’histoire de cette société. Or, il est possible de faire cette histoire, à l’aide des outils de l’histoire de l’art d’abord et de l’histoire littéraire ensuite. Ses fondements sont jetés ici et ils répondent à une question trop rarement posée : quel est l’art de la bohème ? / This thesis is the first monograph on the artistic brotherhood of the Water Drinkers, a mutual aid association that united eleven young painters, sculptors and writers in 1840s Paris. Most of these men were to enter history not thanks to their art but because they were to exemplify the bohemian artist or writer. That was due to a book published by one of the group members in 1851—to the disservice of the Water Drinkers and history alike. For more than a century and a half, Henri Murger’s La Vie de Bohème has been the basis of our notion of bohemian Paris. This book owes its initial fame to its theatrical adaptation in 1849 and its lasting fame to its operatic adaptation in 1896, in Puccini’s La Bohème. It owes its place in academic research to its reputation as a historical document and a novel of manners. It is first and foremost this reputation—widely accepted though historically unverified, and frequently enhanced by cultural historians and sociologists over the past three decades—that is responsible for the Water Drinkers being unknown as artists, and famous as bohemians. It is additionally the obscurity of the works of the group members, chiefly visual artists, that is responsible for scholars and especially art historians not studying their history. Yet their history can be studied, by means of art history first and literary history second. This thesis lays the foundation for this study and answers a question too seldom asked: what is bohemian art?