This thesis examines an African American woman’s narrative about the day that her daughter was shot. Like many personal narratives of “frightening experiences,” the speaker in this narrative highlights the peak of her story, making sure her point is salient. In earlier analyses, it has been shown that evaluation tends to cluster around the peak of the narrative. In “The day my daughter got shot” we see that this event-filled narrative is not evaluated as predicted as there is no increased usage of evaluative devices at one single point in the narrative. Instead, it is a change in patterning of a number of linguistic and paralinguistic devices that conspire to bring special attention to the peak of the narrative. By examining multiple devices at once, it is seen that they create a cumulative effect that makes the story interesting and exciting, resulting in a successful narrative.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Investigamos neste estudo a alternÃncia entre os modos verbais subjuntivo e indicativo em expressÃes dubitativas da lÃngua falada da Cidade do MÃxico, tambÃm conhecida como MÃxico, D.F. ou MÃxico, Distrito Federal. Valemo-nos do Corpus SociolinguÃstico de Ciudad de MÃxico, coletado e transcrito pelo Laboratorio de Estudios FÃnicos del Colegio de MÃxico (LEF-CM). O principal objetivo desse estudo à descrever o estado da variaÃÃo entre subjuntivo e indicativo em oraÃÃes independentes dubitativas, analisando os contextos favorÃveis e de restriÃÃo da variante subjuntivo e, assim, apontar se hà indÃcios de uma possÃvel mudanÃa em progresso na amostra analisada. Elencamos variÃveis linguÃsticas e sociais que, por hipÃtese, poderiam favorecer a variaÃÃo, outras que favoreceriam o indicativo e outras que favoreceriam o subjuntivo. Desse modo, concebendo a forÃa modal nÃo sendo exclusivamente encontrada na forma verbal, mas sim apreensÃvel no discurso e tambÃm, considerando um continuum do valor de certeza da modalidade irrealis, inerente aos enunciados dubitativos, buscamos mapear a frequÃncia de ocorrÃncia dos modos verbais em enunciados dubitativos, onde, segundo a normatividade, terÃamos preferencialmente o subjuntivo. Assim, almejamos identificar quais fatores condicionam o uso de subjuntivo ou de indicativo nessas construÃÃes. Os dados foram quantificados por meio do programa estatÃstico GOLDVARB X e analisados à luz da Teoria da VariaÃÃo e MudanÃa e de pressupostos funcionalistas, uma vez que ambas convergem no tocante à concepÃÃo de lÃngua como sistema heterogÃneo e passÃvel Ãs pressÃes de uso, consequentemente à variaÃÃo e à mudanÃa. Os resultados apontam as variÃveis item dubitativo e tempos verbais em alternÃncia como favorecedores do subjuntivo nessa variÃvel linguÃstica. Nesse sentido, observamos que hà uma especializaÃÃo no paradigma dos advÃrbios de dÃvida, consagrada e ratificada pelo uso, que atuariam, assim, como Ãndices da modalidade subjacente a esses enunciados, sendo o seguramente e o a lo mejor favorecedores do indicativo e de mais certeza do falante, enquanto o probablemente, o posiblemente e o quizÃ(s) favoreceriam o subjuntivo. Jà o grupo tempos verbais em alternÃncia nos indica que os tempos verbais de subjuntivo: presente, pretÃrito perfecto e pretÃrito imperfecto, sofrem a concorrÃncia da respectiva forma verbal de indicativo. O Ãnico tempo verbal que nÃo se mostra favorÃvel à variaÃÃo à o pluscuamperfecto de subjuntivo que se mostra contexto quase que categÃrico de subjuntivo com apenas uma ocorrÃncia de alternÃncia com a respectiva forma do indicativo. Em linhas gerais, sem desconsiderar a influÃncia sintÃtico-semÃntica, concebemos que no ato comunicativo a escolha do falante, situada no nÃvel pragmÃtico-dicursivo, propicia a codificaÃÃo de mensagens com sentidos diferentes da significaÃÃo que o item dubitativo ou o modo verbal prototipicamente possuem, com vistas a cumprir determinado propÃsito comunicativo. Nesse sentido, o julgamento epistÃmico do falante subjacente no discurso condiciona a seleÃÃo de itens dubitativos, que atuam como Ãndices da modalidade, e na seleÃÃo do modo verbal. Quanto Ãs variÃveis sociais, embora nÃo selecionadas pelo programa estatÃstico, os resultados mostram que os homens usam mais a forma subjuntiva que as mulheres e que os falantes com mais escolaridade usam mais o subjuntivo. / Investigamos en este estudio la alternancia entre los modos verbales subjuntivo e indicativo en expresiones dubitativas de lengua hablada de Ciudad de MÃxico, tambiÃn conocida como MÃxico, D.F. o MÃxico, Distrito Federal. Nos valemos del Corpus SociolingÃÃstico de Ciudad de MÃxico, colectado y transcripto por Laboratorio de Estudios FÃnicos del Colegio de MÃxico (LEF-CM). El principal objetivo de ese estudio es describir el estado de la variaciÃn entre subjuntivo e indicativo en oraciones independientes dubitativas, analizando los contextos favorables y de restricciÃn de la variante subjuntivo y, asÃ, apuntar si hay indicios de un posible cambio en progreso en la muestra analizada. Elegimos variables lingÃÃsticas y sociales que, por hipÃtesis, podrÃan favorecer la alternancia, otras que favorecerÃan el indicativo y otras que favorecerÃan el subjuntivo. De ese modo, concibiendo la fuerza modal como no siendo exclusivamente encontrada en la forma verbal, sino aprehensible en el discurso y tambiÃn, considerando un continuum del valor de certeza de la modalidad irrealis, inherente a los enunciados dubitativos, buscamos mapear la frecuencia de ocurrencia de los modos verbales en enunciados dubitativos, donde, segÃn la normatividad, tendrÃamos preferentemente el subjuntivo. De ese modo, anhelamos identificar cuÃles factores condicionan el uso de subjuntivo o de indicativo en esas construcciones. Los datos fueron cuantificados por medio del programa estadÃstico GOLDVARB X y analizados a la luz de la TeorÃa de VariaciÃn y Mudanza y de presupuestos funcionalistas, una vez que ambas convergen cuanto a la concepciÃn de lengua como sistema heterogÃneo y pasible a las presiones de uso, consecuentemente a la variaciÃn y a la mudanza. Los resultados apuntan las variables item dubitativo y tempos verbais em alternÃncia como favorecedoras del subjuntivo en esa variable lingÃÃstica. En ese sentido, observamos que hay una especializaciÃn en el paradigma de los adverbios de duda, consagrada y ratificada por el uso, que actuarÃan, asÃ, como Ãndices de la modalidad subyacente a esos enunciados, siendo el seguramente y el a lo mejor favorecedores del indicativo y de mÃs certeza del hablante, mientras el probablemente, el posiblemente y el quizÃ(s) favorecerÃan el subjuntivo. Ya el grupo tempos verbais em alternÃncia nos indica que los tiempos verbales de subjuntivo: presente, pretÃrito perfecto y pretÃrito imperfecto, sufren la concurrencia de la respectiva forma verbal de indicativo. El Ãnico tiempo verbal que no se muestra favorable a la alternancia es el pluscuamperfecto de subjuntivo que se muestra contexto casi que categÃrico de subjuntivo con apenas una ocurrencia de alternancia con la respectiva forma de indicativo. En lÃneas generales, sin desconsiderar el influjo sintÃctico-semÃntico, concebimos que en el acto comunicativo la elecciÃn del hablante, situada en el nivel pragmÃtico-discursivo, propicia la codificaciÃn de mensajes con sentidos diferentes de la significaciÃn que el Ãtem dubitativo o el modo verbal prototÃpicamente poseen, con vistas a cumplir determinado propÃsito comunicativo. En ese sentido, el juzgamiento epistÃmico del hablante subyacente en el discurso condiciona la selecciÃn de Ãtems dubitativos, que actÃan como Ãndices da modalidad, y en la selecciÃn del modo verbal. Con relaciÃn a las variables sociales, aunque no hayan sido seleccionadas por el programa estadÃstico, los resultados muestran que los hombres usan mÃs la forma subjuntiva que las mujeres y que los hablantes con mÃs escolaridad usan mÃs el subjuntivo.

Submitted by Renata Lopes (renatasil82@gmail.com) on 2016-09-28T14:26:07Z No. of bitstreams: 1 nathaliafelixdeoliveira.pdf: 1744056 bytes, checksum: c1ae733638dc1cc5af8aef58174d0fd6 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Diamantino Mayra (mayra.diamantino@ufjf.edu.br) on 2016-09-28T15:47:30Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 nathaliafelixdeoliveira.pdf: 1744056 bytes, checksum: c1ae733638dc1cc5af8aef58174d0fd6 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-09-28T15:47:30Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 nathaliafelixdeoliveira.pdf: 1744056 bytes, checksum: c1ae733638dc1cc5af8aef58174d0fd6 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-04-06 / CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Este trabalho investiga o desenvolvimento do uso volitivo dos verbos “querer”, “esperar”, “procurar”, “buscar” e “tentar” na língua portuguesa. Assumindo como perspectiva teórica a abordagem construcional da mudança linguística (TRAUGOTT, 2003, 2008a, 2008b, 2009, 2011a; TRAUGOTT & TROUSDALE, 2013; TROUSDALE, 2014), partimos do pressuposto de que a instanciação da acepção volitiva desses verbos consiste na emergência de construções gramaticalmente identificáveis que indexam a vontade do falante. Assim sendo, procuramos estabelecer, alinhando-nos, mais especificamente, aos postulados da construcionalização, uma rede construcional, com diferentes níveis de esquematicidade, que estaria na base desse processo (TRAUGOTT & TROUSDALE 2013; TROUSDALE, 2014). Diante de nosso objetivo, foi selecionado um banco de dados pancrônico, considerando a distribuição dos verbos “querer”, “esperar”, “procurar”, “buscar” e “tentar” desde o século XIII até o português contemporâneo. Os dados sincrônicos recobrem tanto a modalidade oral quanto a modalidade escrita da língua. A oralidade foi composta por entrevistas selecionadas em três corpora distintos, a saber: o corpus do Projeto “Mineirês: a construção de um dialeto”, o corpus do Projeto “PEUL – Programa de Estudos sobre o Uso da Língua” e o corpus do Projeto NURC/RJ – Projeto da Norma Urbana Oral Culta do Rio de Janeiro. Já os dados sincrônicos escritos foram formados por textos disponíveis na Internet retirados de blogs e de revistas de grande circulação nacional (“Revista Veja”, “Revista Isto é”, “Revista Época”, “Revista Caras”, “Revista Cláudia” e “Revista Ana Maria”). Por sua vez, os dados diacrônicos foram coletados do corpus do Projeto “CIPM – Corpus Informatizado do Português Medieval” e do corpus do Projeto “Tycho Brahe”. Mediante o equacionamento do cálculo da frequência de uso e da análise qualitativa das ocorrências identificadas, os resultados demonstram que, como volitivos, os verbos – que antes apresentavam em suas acepções iniciais a ideia de movimento – passam a indexar as vontades do sujeito. Destacamos que entendemos a volição a partir de um continuum de escalaridade, que compreende as noções de intenção e desejo. Ela refere-se a um evento a ser desempenhado em um tempo futuro e é codificada por meio de diferentes graus de incerteza epistêmica que o falante possui acerca da atualização desse evento. Nesse sentido, defendemos que o esquema envolvendo verbos volitivos do português estaria diretamente relacionado à manifestação da categoria irrealis expressa pela presença de um sujeito [+ animado] – mesmo que metaforizado –, acompanhado pelo verbo e seu complemento. Os subesquemas desse padrão macroconstrucional se diferenciariam entre si, formalmente, a depender da proximidade cognitiva estabelecida entre o sujeito volitivo e o evento alvo de sua vontade, ou seja, a partir do entendimento do evento, pelo falante, como [+/- irrealis]. Tendo em vista esse(s) (sub)esquema(s), é possível relacionarmos a emergência de construções individuais 7 (microconstruções) volitivas com “querer”, “esperar”, “procurar”, “buscar” e “tentar” e estabelecer uma rede construcional referente ao desenvolvimento de verbos volitivos na língua portuguesa. / This work investigates the development of the volitional use of the verbs “querer”, “esperar”, “procurar”, “buscar” and “tentar” in the Portuguese language. Assuming as the theoretical perspective the constructional approach of the linguistic change (TRAUGOTT, 2003, 2008a, 2008b, 2009, 2011c; TRAUGOTT & TROUSDALE, 2013; TROUSDALE, 2014), we part from the principle that the instantiation of the volitional meaning of these verbs consists in the emergence of grammatically identifiable constructions, which index the speaker‟s will. Therefore, we seek to establish, aligning ourselves more specifically to constructionalization postulates, a constructional network with different levels of schematicy, which would be the basis of this process (TRAUGOTT & TROUSDALE 2013; TROUSDALE , 2014). In the face of our goal, we selected a panchronic database, considering the distribution of the verbs “querer”, “esperar”, “procurar”, “buscar” and “tentar” from the XIII century until the contemporary Portuguese. The diachronic data were collected from the corpus of “CIPM – Corpus Informatizado do Português Medieval” and the corpus of “Tycho Brahe” project. In its turn, the synchronic data cover both the oral and written modalities of the language. The orality was composed of interviews selected from three different corpora: the corpus of the “Projeto Mineirês: a construção de um dialeto”, the corpus of “PEUL - Programa de Estudos sobre o Uso da Língua” and the corpus of “NURC/RJ - Projeto da Norma Urbana Oral Culta do Rio de Janeiro”. In its turn, the syncronic data were also formed by written texts available on Internet, taken from blogs and magazines of wide national circulation (“Veja”, “Isto É”, “Época”, “Caras”, “Cláudia” e “Ana Maria”). In front of the equation between the consideration of the frequency of use and the qualitative analysis of identified occurrences, the results demonstrate that the verbs – which presented the idea of movement in their early meanings – start to index the subject‟s will. We emphasize that we understand volition as a scalar continuum, which comprises the ideas of intention and desire. It refers to an event to be played at a future time, and it is coded by different degrees of epistemic uncertainty that the speaker has about the achievement of this event. In this sense, we argue that the scheme involving volitional verbs in Portuguese would be directly related to the manifestation of irrealis category expressed by the presence of a [+ animated] subject – even if it is metaphorized –, accompanied by the verb and its complement. The subschemes of this macroconstructional pattern would differ from each other, formally, depending on the cognitive proximity established between the volitional subject and the target event of his/her will; in other words, from the understanding of the event, by the speaker, as [+/ irrealis]. Bearing in mind these (sub)schemas, we can relate the emergence of individual volitional constructions (micro-constructions) with “querer”, “esperar”, “procurar”, “buscar” and “tentar” and establish a constructional network on the development of volitional verbs in the Portuguese language.

Iquito, a highly endangered Zaparoan language of the Peruvian Amazon, exhibits a typologically unusual word order alternation that marks the grammatical category of reality status (i.e. the distinction between realized (realis) and unrealized or hypothetical (irrealis) events). This alternation is the only reliable marker of the category; Iquito does not employ morphology to mark the realis/irrealis distinction. While the word order of Iquito realis constructions is reliably SVO, the word order of irrealis constructions does not fall into one of the canonical orders. It is characterized by an element (X) intervening between the subject and the verb, resulting in the order SXV. In this dissertation, I provide a detailed description and analysis of the realis/irrealis word order alternation. Using data from both elicitation and texts that I collected while in the field, I describe the types of elements that occur in the preverbal position of the irrealis construction, determine what unifies these elements, and establish which element of the sentence will occur in this position and what conditions this choice. Relying on the available data for the other languages in the family, I examine the expression of reality status in these languages and discuss how reality status comes to be associated with word order. I also provide a survey of other languages exhibiting similar word order alternations and discuss how they compare to the alternation we see in Iquito, concluding that Iquito is an example of an “ideal” word order alternation because word order is the sole indicator of the grammatical category with which it is associated. / text

There is a lack of exhaustively investigation for the public speech and the modality of politicians’ speech is been researched for the very first time. The society is highly interested in politics and it has a big influence on the users of language. The paper deals with the modality conception and its expression ways in politicians’ speech. The political discussions program’s “Spaudos klubas” materials are used for studies. After analysis of politicians spoken language was made, some bents for modality usage came to light. In a case of epistemic modality possibility and reality, that embrace real facts, are expressed in politicians’ speech. And in a case of deontic modality possibility and necessity, that encompass will acts, are expressed. The usage of dynamic modality in politicians’ speech is very rare. Realis is put into words by indicative mood and irrealis – by subjunctive and imperative mood. Another way politicians express irrealis is future tense. All basic senses of primary modality - reality, possibility and necessary, are introduced in politicians’ spoken language. In discussions programs politicians mostly use reality meaning sentences (65,35 percent). In telecasts people in politics use all types of basic modal sentences. Direct sentences are used in the most part, it is evade a usage of incentive sentences and the number of interrogative sentences is the least. Secondary modality categorical reliability expression cases are more frequent than the problematic... [to full text]

In dieser Arbeit untersuche ich aus einer typologischen Perspektive die Bedeutung von Tempus, Modalität und Aspekt (TMA) in Nafsan (South Efate), einer ozeanischen Sprache Vanuatus. Ich konzentriere mich auf die Bedeutung des perfektiven Aspekts und der Realis/Irrealis-Modalität in Nafsan und anderen ozeanischen Sprachen, als Fallstudien zur Untersuchung der sprach-übergreifenden Merkmale dieser TMA-Kategorien. Um ihre Bedeutungen in Nafsan zu analysieren, untersuche ich die Grammatik von Nafsan (Thieberger, 2006) und den Korpus von Thieberger (1995–2018), gefolgt von meiner Feldarbeit (Krajinovic, 2017b). Meine Analysen zeigen, dass Perfekt in Nafsan alle Funktionen hat, die für das Perfekt im Englischen typisch sind, mit Ausnahme der zusätzlichen Bedeutung von Zustandsänderungen. Die Verwendung des Nafsan-Perfekts liefert einen Beitrag zu der Debatte über die sprachübergreifende Gültigkeit von Iamitive, definiert durch die Bedeutung von Zustandsänderungen (Olsson, 2013). Basierend auf den Daten aus Nafsan und anderen ozeanischen Sprachen zeige ich, dass die von Klein (1994) vorgeschlagene semantische Definition des Perfekts ausreichend ist, um zusätzliche Funktionen des Perfekts zu berücksichtigen, ohne eine neue Iamitive-Kategorie zu etablieren. Was die Unterscheidung zwischen Realis und Irrealis betrifft, so habe ich festgestellt, dass die Kategorie Realis in Nafsan semantisch unterbewertet ist, wie sie in Irrealis-Kontexten auftreten kann, die mit der Bedeutung von Realis unvereinbar sein sollten. Ich schlage vor, dass “Realis” gelegentlich Realis-Bedeutungen durch pragmatischen Wettbewerb mit Irrealis erhaltet. Indem ich das “branching-times’’ Modell annehme, das den Ausdruck von Modalität und zeitlichem Bezug vereint (Prince, 2018), zeige ich, dass Nafsan und mehrere andere ozeanische Sprachen Beweise dafür liefern, dass Irrealis als Modalitätskategorie, die sich auf nicht-aktuelle Welten bezieht, eine semantisch sinnvolle Kategorie ist. / In this thesis I study the meaning of tense, mood, and aspect (TMA) expressions in Nafsan (South Efate), an Oceanic language of Vanuatu, from a typological perspective. I focus on the meanings of the perfect aspect and realis/irrealis mood in Nafsan and other Oceanic languages, as case studies for investigating the cross-linguistic features of these TMA categories, frequently disputed in the literature. In order to analyze their meanings in Nafsan, I studied the Nafsan grammar (Thieberger, 2006) and corpus by Thieberger (1995–2018), followed by storyboard and questionnaire elicitation in my fieldwork (Krajinovic, 2017b). I found that the Nafsan perfect has all the functions considered to be typical of the English-style perfect, except for the additional meaning of change of state. I place the analysis of the Nafsan perfect in the debate about the cross-linguistic validity of the newly proposed category of iamitives, defined by the meaning of change of state akin to `already' and lacking experiential and universal perfect functions (Olsson, 2013). Based on the data from Nafsan and other Oceanic languages, I show that, when language-internal processes are considered, the semantic definition of perfect proposed by Klein (1994) is sufficient to account for additional perfect functions, without the need to posit the new iamitive category. Regarding the realis/irrealis distinction, I have found that the “realis” category is semantically underspecified in Nafsan, as it can occur in irrealis contexts that should be incompatible with realis meanings. I propose that “realis” in Nafsan only occasionally receives realis meanings through pragmatic competition with the irrealis category. By adopting a branching-times model that unites the expression of modality and temporal reference (Prince, 2018), I also show that Nafsan and several other Oceanic languages provide evidence that irrealis as a mood category referring to non-actual worlds is a semantically meaningful category.

國 立 政 治 大 學 研 究 所 碩 士 論 文 提 要 研究所別：語言學研究所 論文名稱：論台灣華語中的限定與非限定子句的區分 指導教授：何萬順 博士 研究生：何郁瑩 論文提要內容：〈共一冊，20013字，分七章〉 本篇論文藉由三段邏輯論證法推翻漢語沒有限定與非限定子句之分的論證；反之，支持此區分在台灣華語中的有效性。鑑於「時式」的普遍性，表現在構詞方面的限定與非限定區分在綜合型語言當中是顯而易見的。雖然台灣華語缺乏明顯的構詞標記，但此限定與非限定的區分透過句法類目以及句法現象的限制依然成立。此外，我們亦將次劃分子句為補語的動詞進ㄧ步區分為三類─限定補語動詞、非限定補語動詞、雙類動詞。限定補語動詞可同時次劃分有明顯主語的限定子句以及經由代詞刪略現象後無主語的限定子句，而非限定補語動詞僅能次劃分不帶主語的非限定子句。至於雙類動詞，一類從舊有文獻中劃分出來的新類動詞，擁有同時次劃分限定子句與非限定子句的能力。當雙類動詞次劃分限定子句為補語時，有兩個條件必須被滿足：一是情狀動詞的出現，此為必要條件；二是明顯主語的出現，此為充分條件。再者，子句主語的出現與否端視於主要句謂語與子句謂語間的緩衝詞是否出現。在詞彙功能語法的架構之下，情狀動詞的出現之所以為雙類動詞次劃分限定子句為補語的必要條件是由於雙類動詞要求其子句補語擁有「非實現貌」的元素，而此元素便是由情狀動詞所提供。基於本篇論文中強而有力的論述，我們強烈主張此限定與非限定子句的區分在台灣華語中是存在的，甚至普及於全人類的語言。 / This thesis provides robust argumentation via syllogisms so as to deny the argument that the distinction between finiteness and non-finiteness does not exist in Mandarin Chinese; on the contrary, to defend the proposition that this finite vs. non-finite distinction does exist in Taiwan Mandarin. In virtue of the universality of the category tense, the finite vs. non-finite distinction, morphologically manifested in synthetic languages, is taken for granted. Opaque as it is in Taiwan Mandarin, there still exist other ways for distinction, such as constraints on syntactic categories and operations. Furthermore, we re-classify verbs subcategorizing sentential complements into three types—finite-complement verb (FC verb), non-finite-complement verb (NC verb), dual-listing verb (DL verb). FC verbs can subcategorize not only finite clauses with overt subjects, but also those with covert counterparts left after pro-drop processes, while NC verbs can only subcategorize non-finite clauses as sentential complement. As for DL verbs, a neonatal one extracted from the so-called persuade-type verbs in the literature, has the capability of subcategorizing dual sentential complements, namely, finite clauses and non-finite clauses. When DL verbs subcategorize finite clauses as complement, two conditions must be satisfied to ensure the grammaticality. They are the presence of modals and the presence of overt subjects. The former is a necessary condition; the latter is a sufficient condition. Moreover, the presence of embedded overt subjects hinges on the presence of proper buffers between main predicates and embedded overt subjects. In LFG’s framework, the reason for the presence of modals being the necessary condition is that DL verbs require their sentential complements to have the value IRREALIS, which is denoted by modals obviously. On account of the tenable criteria mentioned in this thesis, we assert with confidence that this finite vs. non-finite distinction does exist in Taiwan Mandarin and that this distinction is considered universal.