The Southern African Development Community (SADC) is a regional economic community established by Treaty in 1992 and comprising fifteen southern African countries. The Tribunal, SADC’s judicial organ, is situated in Windhoek, Namibia and became operational in 2005. The Tribunal enjoys a wide mandate to hear and determine disputes between states, states and SADC, and between natural and legal persons and states or SADC. It is mandated to develop its own jurisprudence having regard to applicable treaties, general rules and principles of public international law, and principles and rules of law of member states. Being new in the field, the Tribunal has not as yet developed a significant jurisprudence although it has delivered a number of judgments some of which are referred to in the study. The Tribunal is expected to develop its own jurisprudence having regard to the jurisprudence developed by other international courts involved in the judicial settlement of disputes. The study offers a comparative review and analysis of the jurisprudence of two selected courts: the International Court of Justice (ICJ) and the Court of Justice of the European Union (ECJ). The focus is on four selected areas considered crucial to the functioning of the Tribunal and the selected courts. The study discusses the parties with access to the Tribunal and compares this with access to the ICJ and ECJ. The jurisdiction of the Tribunal is contrasted with that of the two selected courts. The sources of law available to the Tribunal are discussed and contrasted to those of the two courts. Lastly, the enforcement of law in SADC is contrasted to what applies in relation to the selected courts. In each selected area, similarities and differences between the Tribunal and the two courts are noted and critically evaluated. Further, rules and principles developed by the two selected courts are explored in depth with a view to identifying those which could be of use to the Tribunal. Recommendations are made on rules and principles which could be of use to the Tribunal and on possible improvements to the SADC treaty regime. / Constitutional, International and Indigenous Law / LL.D.

No description available.

In August 2000, Justice O�Loughlin of the Federal Court of Australia handed down the decision in Cubillo v Commonwealth in which Lorna Cubillo and Peter Gunner took action against the Commonwealth Government, arguing that it was vicariously liable for their removal from their families and communities as children and subsequent detentions in the Northern Territory during the 1940s and 1950s. The case is the landmark decision in relation to legal action taken by members of the Stolen Generations. Using the decision in Cubillo as a key site of contestation, my thesis provides a critique of legal positivism as the dominant jurisprudential discourse operating within the Anglo-Australian legal system. I argue that the function of legal positivism as the principal paradigm and source of authority for the decision serves to ensure that the debate concerning reconciliation in Australia operates rhetorically to maintain whiteness at the centre of political and discursive power. Specifically concerned with the performative function of legal discourse, the thesis is an interrogation of the interface of law and language, of rhetoric, and the semiotics of legal discourse. The dominant theory of evidence law is a rationalist and empiricist epistemology in which oral testimony and documentary evidence are regarded as mediating the relationship between proof and truth. I argue that by attributing primacy to principles of rationality, objectivity and narrative coherence, and by privileging that which is visually represented, the decision serves an ideological purpose which diminishes the significance of race in the construction of knowledge. Legal positivism identifies the knowing subject and the object of knowledge as discrete entities. However, I argue that in Cubillo, Justice O�Loughlin inscribes himself into the text of the judgment and in doing so, reveals the way in which textual and corporeal specificities undermine the pretence of objective judgment and therefore the source of judicial authority.

The following argument offers a sharper micro-foundational lens for studying human political and social behavior by demonstrating how political science might better incorporate the theory of evolution into its behavioral models, and by showing that differential conflict occasionally prevails over the materialist conflicts depicted in much of the modern social science literature. I take evolutionary psychology's understanding of manifest behavior as a point of departure, and then analyze the manifest behavior in terms of judgments, which are binary measurements at a particular point of reference; in other words, a given manifest behavior either did or did not occur at a particular point in time. I then show that judgments can 1) transmit from one individual to the next, 2) vary according to predictable adaptive processes, and 3) are either extinguished or flourish dependent upon the process of natural selection; judgments, therefore, meet the three requirements of evolutionary theory. Judgments, rather than genes, better describe the process of human political and social evolution, which becomes especially clear when one assesses the consequences of what I term "differential" outcomes in judgments. / text

Skrivande och skrivet språk är idag en viktig del av många människors liv, i datorns ordbehandlare, i e-postprogram och i chattkanaler på Internet. Skrivet språk har blivit mer eller mindre en förutsättning för människors dagliga kommunikation. Denna utveckling av samhället leder till ökade behov av att på olika sätt hantera text. En teknologi som har stor potential att hjälpa människor med skrivande och skrivet språk är språkteknologi. I denna avhandling ligger fokus på olika språkverktyg vars avsikt är att stödja skribenter och de som lär sig svenska bland annat genom att skriva. Ett språkverktyg som har utvecklats och utvärderats i avhandlingen är språkgranskningsverktyget Granska. I arbetet med Granska har fokus legat på utvecklingen av regelspråk, granskningsregler och generella analysregler samt utvärdering av dessa. Granska kombinerar en statistisk grundanalys av ordens ordklasser med regelbaserade metoder för sökning av grammatiska fel och frasanalys. I utvecklingen av granskningsreglerna är dragkampen mellan felaktiga utpekningar av fel, så kallade falska alarm, och uteblivna utpekningar av fel, det största enskilda problemet. Dragkampen uppstår genom att det är svårt att hitta många fel utan att också göra en del felaktiga utpekningar. Språkverktyg för skrivande kan i stort sett utvärderas på två sätt: med fokus på texten eller på den som skriver. I denna avhandling har båda typerna av utvärdering utförts med såväl modersmålskribenter som skribenter med svenska som andraspråk. I en första textbaserad utvärdering visade det sig att textgenre spelar stor roll för Granskas resultat. Ett vanligt fel i en textgenre förekommer nästan inte alls i en annan. Detta innebär att det blir mycket svårt för programmet att inte avge några falska alarm i de texter där feltypen saknas. I en andra textbaserad utvärdering jämfördes Granska och en kommersiell grammatikkontroll på texter från andraspråksskribenter. Den kommersiella grammatikkontrollen visade sig att ha bättre träffsäkerhet, men upptäckte färre fel än Granska. En första mindre användarstudie utfördes med Granska och fem erfarna skribenter. Syfte med studien var att utveckla Granska i linje med skribenters behov vid revision av text. Resultatet indikerade att användarna inte hade några problem med att välja mellan olika feldiagnoser om ett av ersättningsförslagen var korrekt. Falska alarm verkade vara av varierande svårighetsgrad: falska alarm från stavningskontrollen är mer eller mindre ofarliga, medan falska alarm från granskningen av mer komplicerade feltyper kan försvåra revisionsarbetet för användaren. Granska utvecklades från början för erfarna skribenter med svenska som modersmål, men allteftersom arbetet har fortskridit har även skribenter med svenska som andraspråk blivit en allt viktigare användargrupp. I detta arbete har diskussionen om granskningsmetod blivit mer och mer central. Även om gruppen andraspråksskribenter är mycket heterogen, så innehåller den här gruppens texter generellt sett mer fel, och i många fall fler fel i samma mening. Detta gör granskningsproblemet betydligt svårare. För det första så blir det svårare att avgöra ordens ordklass och frastillhörighet när flera fel finns i samma mening, och därmed har programmet allt mindre att hänga upp den grundläggande språkliga analysen på. För det andra är det svårare att konstruera granskningsregler för fel vars natur är svår att förutsäga på förhand. För att förbättra den grundläggande språkanalysen utvecklades programmet GTA, som gör en frasanalys och satsgränsigenkänning. GTA utvecklades ur de generella analysregler som redan fanns i Granska. GTA designades för att klara av att analysera texter som innehåller vissa avvikelser från språkets norm, t.ex. inkongruens. För att ta reda på hur väl programmet klarade av mindre avvikelser i form av stavfel utvärderades GTA och även två program för ordklassanalys på texter med olika andel stavfel. GTA bygger till mycket stor del på att identifikationen av ordklass fungerar för att fraser och satsgränser skall analyseras korrekt. Detta bekräftas också i utvärderingen, där det visade sig att GTA klarar sig bra så länge som den underliggande ordklassanalysen klarar att hantera avvikelser i texten. En viktig faktor för att klara språkliga avvikelser, i form av stavfel, är en fungerande metod för att hantera ord som är okända för programmet. Nya metoder för språkgranskning har undersökts i samarbete med andra forskare, och där har avhandlingens bidrag varit i form av transformationsregler i den statistiska språkgranskaren ProbGranska. Dessa regler visade sig vid en utvärdering avsevärt förbättra ProbGranskas säkerhet när det gällde att identifiera grammatiska problem. I utvecklingen av språkgranskaren SnålGranska har avhandlingen bidragit med idéer till dess grundläggande algoritm. Denna algoritm bygger på att träna ett maskininlärningsprogram på konstgjorda fel i avsaknad av en korpus med många uppmärkta autentiska fel. För att komma vidare med utvecklingen av språkverktyg för andraspråksskribenter genomfördes en längre fältstudie vid ett svenskt universitet. Syftet var att studera användningen av Granska i autentiska skrivuppgifter som studenterna genomförde i en avancerad kurs i svenska som främmande språk. Sexton studenter med olika språklig och kulturell bakgrund deltog i studien. En viktig del av studien utgjordes av studenternas bedömningar av Granskas alarm. Bedömningarna gjordes på en betygsskala från 1 till 5. Studenternas texter samlades också in i två versioner; en version före och en efter användningen av programmet. Denna metod gjorde det möjligt att studera i vilken grad studenterna följde Granskas råd, och huruvida dåliga eller bra råd från programmet fick höga eller låga betyg. Mest alarmerande var att dåliga råd angående ordföljd alltid fick högsta betyg. Andra ofta lämpliga råd dömdes ut för att beskrivningen av dessa feltyper, t.ex. anmärkningar om saknade tempusböjda verb och uteblivna subjekt, var svåra att förstå samt att de saknade ersättningsförslag. En viktig insikt från fältstudien var att Granska eller liknade verktyg inte är det enda verktyg som andraspråksskribenter behöver när de skriver text. Denna insikt tillsammans med andra resultat från fältstudien mynnade ut i flera designprinciper för program med fokus på andraspråksskribenter. Dessa designprinciper användes sedan i utformningen av språkmiljön Grim. Grim är en ordbehandlingsmiljö med olika interaktiva språkverktyg integrerade: Granska, GTA, den statistiska språkgranskaren ProbGranska, lexikonet Lexin med åtta olika språkpar, konkordansgränssnitt mot stora textmängder från korpusen Parole, och en ordböjningsfunktion. I Grim kan användaren arbeta med egna eller andras texter, och få återkoppling på språkets former från Granska och GTA, undersöka ords användning i autentiska texter samt få en ökad förståelse av målspråket genom integrerade tvåspråkiga lexikon. / Writing and written language play today an increasingly important part in many people’s lives. Written language has become more or less a prerequisite for daily communication. This development of society leads to increased needs for tools that can help humans in dealing with text. A technology that has a potential to aid people with writing and written language is language technology. In this thesis, the focus is on language tools based on language technology that can aid writers and learners of Swedish. A language tool that has been developed and evaluated in the thesis is the grammar checker Granska. The thesis work on Granska includes the design of its rule language, and the development of grammar checking rules for common error types in Swedish. In addition, rules for phrase analysis and clause boundary detection have been developed constituting a partial and shallow parser called GTA. Language tools for writing can mainly be evaluated in two ways: with focus on text or with focus on the writer. In this thesis, both types of evaluations have been carried out both with native writers and second language writers. The first textual evaluation of Granska showed that the genre has a strong influence on the result. In a second evaluation, Granska was compared with a commercial grammar checker on second language writers’ texts. Granska found more errors, but with a lower precision. A third evaluation focused on the general text analyzers, which Granska relies on, in this case a statistical word class analyzer and the parser GTA. These programs were evaluated on texts where spelling errors were introduced, in order to test the programs’ robustness. Results showed that as long as the word class analyzer is robust the parser GTA would also be robust. In a first formative user study with Granska and five participants, results suggested that several and competing error diagnoses and correction proposals are not a problem for the users as long as there exist at least one accurate correction proposal. Moreover, false alarms from the spelling checker seemed to pose a limited problem for the users, but false alarms on more complicated error types might disturb the revision process of the users. In order to improve the design of language tools for second language writers a field study was carried out at a Swedish university. Sixteen students with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds participated in the study. The objective was to study the use of Granska in students’ free writing. The results indicated that although most alarms from Granska are accurate, lack of feedback and misleading feedback are problems for second language writers. The results also suggested that providing the students with feedback on different aspects of their interlanguage, not only errors, and facilitating the processes of language exploration and reflection are important processes to be supported in second-language learning environments. These insights were used as design principles in the design and development of an interactive language environment called Grim. This program includes a basic word processor, in which the user can get feedback on linguistic code features from different language tools such as Granska and GTA. In addition, other tools are available for the user to explore language use in authentic texts and to achieve lexical comprehension through bilingual dictionaries. / QC 20100428

Esta tesis incluye tres capítulos que exploran diferentes aspectos de la distinción entre decisiones desde la descripción y decisiones desde la experiencia. El capítulo 1 estudia escenarios de decisión cuando las personas cuentan con información tanto desde la descripción como desde la experiencia. Los resultados sugieren que la experiencia es desatendida ante una descripción.También se explora el impacto sobre las decisiones de diferencias individales con respecto a la habilidad racional.Las personas con habilidad racional más alta obtienen muestras de mayor tamaño que los participantes con menor habilidad racional.El capítulo 2 examina situaciones en las que la información obtenida desde la experiencia resulta una mejor fuente que una descripción.La complejidad y las demoras favorecen a la experiencia sobre la descripción como fuente de información. No se evidencian diferencias individuales con respecto a habilidades numéricas o racionales. Sin embargo, se evidencia una relación entre mayor habilidad racional y mayor tamaño muestral. Por último, el capítulo 3 explora, para una tarea de lotería,la interacción entre la ilusión de control y la fuente de información. / This thesis includes three chapters that study different aspects of the distinction between decisions from description and decisions from experience. Chapter 1 studies choice when decision makers have both information from description and information from experience. Results suggest that experience is disregarded in the face of description. Individual differences with respect to rational ability are also explored. Participants with higher rational ability draw larger samples than participants with lower rational ability. Chapter 2 examines situations in which information from experience is a better source of information than information from description. Complex scenarios and delayed judgmental tasks favor experience over description as source of information. Moreover, there were no individual differences due to numerical/rational abilities. Additional evidence was found that relates higher rational ability to larger samples.Finally,chapter 3 explores how illusion of control interacts with the source of information in a lottery task.

In August 2000, Justice O�Loughlin of the Federal Court of Australia handed down the decision in Cubillo v Commonwealth in which Lorna Cubillo and Peter Gunner took action against the Commonwealth Government, arguing that it was vicariously liable for their removal from their families and communities as children and subsequent detentions in the Northern Territory during the 1940s and 1950s. The case is the landmark decision in relation to legal action taken by members of the Stolen Generations. Using the decision in Cubillo as a key site of contestation, my thesis provides a critique of legal positivism as the dominant jurisprudential discourse operating within the Anglo-Australian legal system. I argue that the function of legal positivism as the principal paradigm and source of authority for the decision serves to ensure that the debate concerning reconciliation in Australia operates rhetorically to maintain whiteness at the centre of political and discursive power. Specifically concerned with the performative function of legal discourse, the thesis is an interrogation of the interface of law and language, of rhetoric, and the semiotics of legal discourse. The dominant theory of evidence law is a rationalist and empiricist epistemology in which oral testimony and documentary evidence are regarded as mediating the relationship between proof and truth. I argue that by attributing primacy to principles of rationality, objectivity and narrative coherence, and by privileging that which is visually represented, the decision serves an ideological purpose which diminishes the significance of race in the construction of knowledge. Legal positivism identifies the knowing subject and the object of knowledge as discrete entities. However, I argue that in Cubillo, Justice O�Loughlin inscribes himself into the text of the judgment and in doing so, reveals the way in which textual and corporeal specificities undermine the pretence of objective judgment and therefore the source of judicial authority.

En ce début de XXIe siècle, le droit international privé intervient dans un contexte caractérisé à la fois par la multiplication des relations familiales internationales, conséquence de la mobilité croissante des personnes privées, et la montée d’un individualisme qui rechigne toujours davantage à composer avec les contraintes collectives. Ces changements conduisent à une contestation croissante des obstacles à la reconnaissance des situations familiales qui impose de repenser à la fois le cadre théorique et les méthodes de la discipline. Sur le premier plan, il est proposé de consacrer un nouveau principe directeur, l’impératif de reconnaissance des situations familiales, qui reflète à la fois la prédominance effective des intérêts privés et la matérialisation d’une discipline autrefois éprise de justice conflictuelle, et permet d’afficher plus clairement ce qui doit désormais constituer la réaction dominante du for face à une situation familiale constituée à l’étranger. Sur le plan des méthodes, l’enjeu est de traduire le nouvel impératif, ce qui doit consister à libéraliser l’accueil des situations familiales constituées à l’étranger sans aller jusqu’à supprimer tous les chefs de contrôle. Plusieurs voies sont envisageables, qui vont du simple infléchissement des méthodes existantes à la consécration d’une nouvelle méthode de la reconnaissance des situations familiales. Entre ces différentes possibilités, des choix s’imposent qui mêlent technique et politique juridiques, et impliquent de prendre en compte tant les enseignements de la théorie générale du droit international privé que la dimension européenne de la problématique. / Private international law today has to contend with social realities that have evolved markedly over the course of the last few decades. As a result of increased mobility across national borders, international families are ever more numerous and so are instances where recognition of a family status acquired abroad is sought. The effects of this change are compounded by a greater focus on individual agency and self-determination, which leads to stronger challenges to State policies that result in non-recognition. A change in how we understand and ‘do’ private international law seems warranted on two levels. The first change relates to the so-called guiding principles which encapsulate the various aims pursued by the field and can thus provide a useful conceptual framework. I suggest that adding a state duty to recognize a family status created abroad to the existing principles would help strike a better balance between private interests in facilitating recognition and the public interest in the regulation of family forms. This shift necessitates changes on another level, that of the private international law’s methods. Combining easier recognition of foreign family relationships with some degree of state control can be achieved in various ways which range from incremental change to existing methodology to a complete overhaul in the form of a new method of automatic recognition. This raises issues of both technique and policy, which are discussed in the second part of this work from a French and European perspective.

LL.M. (International Commercial Law) / This essay seeks to look at the role of express submission to jurisdictjon under the Brussels I Regulation,lthe Brussels I (recast) Regulation2 and the Hague Convention on Choice of Court Agreements.3 The express submission to jurisdiction under the three instruments mentioned in the previous sentence refers to the situation in which parties to an international commercial contract include in their contract a court of their choice to govern any disputes that may arise between them. This designated court may or may not be situated in a country that is a member of the three instruments mentioned above. The purpose of this thesis is to determine what will occur when the court chosen is from a country that is not a member of either of the three instruments mentioned. We will first look at express submission and the role it plays in determining which court has jurisdiction. This section on express submission will provide the definition of express submission in the context of a contract which incorporates a choice-of-forum agreement between the parties who are engaged in an international commercial transaction. The thesis will view the role of submission in a common-law and civil-law country in light of express submission by contract. Finally, a distinction will be made between an exclusive and non-exclusive jurisdiction clause. A brief discussion ofthe Brussels Convention4 (The Convention) will be provided in order to present the fact that the Convention only applies when a choice-of-forum agreement in a contract has assoned thejurisdiction to a court of a country which is a member of the Convention. The Convention would not apply when a choice-of-forum agreement in a contract has assigned jurisdiction to the court of a country which is not a member to the Convention. ln order to determine whether the position has changed since the enactment of the Brussels I Regulation (Regulation) with regard to choice-of-forum agreements that designate jurisdiction to the court of a country in a nonmember state of the Regulation, provisions relating to express submission clauses will be discussed. A further discussion will be provided to ascertain whether the enactment of the Council Regulation (EC) No 4412001 of 22 December 2000 on jurisdiction and the recognition and enforcement ofjudgments in civil and commercial matters.

ALes instances civile et pénale parallèles suscitent des risques de contrariétés que le droit positif prévient traditionnellement par l'utilisation de la règle de l'autorité du pénal sur le civil et du sursis à statuer de l'article 4 du Code de procédure pénale. Or ce double mécanisme de la primauté du pénal sur le civil est tout à fait singulier. Il assure en effet une cohérence entre les motifs des décisions concernées, dont le droit positif ne se soucie guère au sein des autres contentieux. Il est de plus unilatéral, puisqu'il ne joue qu'au bénéfice des décisions pénales. Justifié initialement par l'importance et les garanties de vérité des décisions pénales, il s'avère cependant, à l'analyse, largement discutable. Quant à ses fondements d'abord, ce mécanisme assure certes une certaine cohérence des choses jugées, mais maintient une apparence de vérité plus qu'il ne la garantit. Or précisément, la cohérence entre motifs de jugements distincts n'est légitime qu'autant qu'elle sert l'objectif de vérité. Quant à son régime, ensuite, l'autorité du pénal sur le civil entrave la liberté du juge civil et viole, par son caractère absolu, le principe du contradictoire, tandis qu'une application systématique du sursis à statuer est source de lenteur des procédures et contrevient à l'objectif de célérité. Afin de pallier ces inconvénients, le législateur et la jurisprudence se sont d'abord efforcés de restreindre les effets les plus néfastes de ce principe, en dissociant les concepts civils et répressifs, puis en le cantonnant étroitement. Néanmoins, l'objectif de célérité l'a finalement emporté, et le législateur, par la loi du 5 mars 2007, n'a maintenu le caractère obligatoire du sursis à statuer de l'article 4 qu'à l'égard de l'action civile en réparation du dommage né de l'infraction. Le nouveau dispositif consacre désormais le principe d'une indépendance des procédures parallèles, au risque de l'incohérence, même si pour l'heure les juridictions du fond tiennent compte du risque de contrariété et maintiennent la règle de l'autorité du pénal sur le civil. Il conviendrait néanmoins de revenir sur cette dernière règle, et d'attribuer aux énonciations qui constituent le soutien nécessaire de la décision pénale, la valeur d'une présomption réfragable de vérité. Il serait ainsi tenu compte des spécificités des décisions pénales, de même que seraient préservées les exigences, parfois antagonistes, d'autonomie des juridictions, de cohérence des choses jugées, et de recherche de vérité. / AWhen civil and penal proceedings occur in parallel, there is a risk of conflicting judgments, which positive law traditionally precludes by making penal proceedings paramount and by deferring adjudication on article 4 of the Criminal Code. This double mechanism, which ensures supremacy of criminal proceedings over civil proceedings, is quite singular. Indeed, it guarantees that the justifications for the decisions made are coherent. In other contentious matters, positive law pays little attention to such concerns. Moreover, it is unilateral, since it exclusively favours criminal law decisions. Though this supremacy was initially justified by the notion that criminal law decisions guaranteed truth, analysis has shown that this is largely debatable. First of all, with regard to the foundations themselves, this mechanism of course ensures a certain coherence of the matters judged, but maintains an appearance of truth rather than a guarantee of truth. Yet, precisely, the coherence of the justifications for distinct judgments is only legitimate insofar as it seeks to determine the truth. Then with regard to the system itself, the supremacy of criminal over civil proceedings interferes with the freedom of the civil judge, and violates by its absolute nature, the adversarial principle, while the systematic deferral of adjudication slows down procedures and undermines the objective of celerity. In order to remedy these drawbacks, legislators and jurisprudence have made an effort to limit the most damaging effects of this principle, by dissociating civil from repressive concepts, then by compartmentalising each within strict limits. Nevertheless, the objective of celerity finally won the day and legislators, through the law of 5th March 2007, retained the compulsory nature of the deferral of adjudication of article 4, but only with regard to civil action for damages resulting from the offence. The new law now establishes the principle of independence of parallel proceedings, even though it carries a risk of conflicting results. For the time being, however, the jurisdictions take into account the risk of conflicting results and have maintained the supremacy of criminal proceedings over civil proceedings. It is nonetheless desirable to revise the recent law, and to incorporate in the reasons which are necessary support for the criminal decision, the value of a refragable presumption of truth. The specific nature of decisions in criminal proceedings would thus be taken into account, and the sometimes antagonistic requirement of autonomy of the different jurisdictions, the coherence of the matters being judged, and the search for truth would thus be preserved.