Submitted by Fabio Sobreira Campos da Costa (fabio.sobreira@ufpe.br) on 2016-10-20T12:15:15Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Thèse-Paula Honório de Melo Martimiano - para imprimir.pdf: 2048933 bytes, checksum: 7f54e2714049362a7394297a27060229 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-10-20T12:15:15Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Thèse-Paula Honório de Melo Martimiano - para imprimir.pdf: 2048933 bytes, checksum: 7f54e2714049362a7394297a27060229 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-03-26 / CAPES / COFECUB / La dénutrition périnatale prédispose le nouveau-né au développement des maladies métaboliques et des déficits cognitifs. Cependant, il existe très peu d'informations sur la relation cause-effet entre le manque d’un, ou de plusieurs nutriments, pendant les étapes critiques du développent et la susceptibilité pathologique à l’âge adulte. L’objectif de cette thèse a été d’étudier l’impact à court terme et à long terme de la dénutrition périnatale sur le métabolisme du tryptophane (Trp) cérébral. Le Trp est un acide aminé essentiel qui est métabolisé en sérotonine (5-HT) et, via la voie de la kynurénine (KYN), en de nombreux autres composés neuro-actifs dont l’acide kynurénique (KA) et l’acide xanthurénique (Xa). L'analyse quantitative par spectrométrie de masse des voies métaboliques du Trp, a montré que la restriction en apports protéiques chez la mère entraine une diminution importante de la concentration de Trp, de 5-HT et des métabolites du Trp issus de la KYN dans les cerveaux des embryons. En revanche, les rats adultes nés et allaités par des mères dénutries, présentent une augmentation de la concentration cérébrale de Trp, de 5-HT, de KYN et de Xa. Il n’y avait pas de modification des métabolites du Trp chez les animaux de deuxième génération. Ces résultats montrent que la dénutrition périnatale provoque des altérations à court terme et à long terme dans le métabolisme cérébral du Trp, mais qu’elles ne sont pas transmises à la deuxième génération. / A desnutrição perinatal predispõe o recém-nascido ao desenvolvimento de doenças metabólicas e défices cognitivos que podem ser transmitidas para a segunda geração. No entanto, há muito pouca informação sobre a relação causa-efeito entre a falta de um ou mais nutrientes durante estágios críticos de desenvolvimento e susceptibilidade à doença em curto e longo prazo. O objetivo dessa tese foi estudar o impacto a curto e longo prazo da desnutrição perinatal sobre o metabolismo do triptofano (Trp) cerebral. O Trp é um aminoácido essencial que é metabolizado em serotonina (5-HT) e através da via da quinurenina (KYN) em muitos outros compostos neuroativos como o ácido quinurênico (KA) e o ácido xanturênico (Xa). A análise quantitativa por espectrometria de massa das vias metabólicas de Trp mostrou que a restrição da ingestão de proteína na mãe resulta numa diminuição significativa na concentração de Trp, 5-HT e metabólitos da KYN em cérebros de embriões. Em contraste, ratos adultos nascidos e alimentados por mães desnutridas, exibem um aumento na concentração cerebral de Trp, 5-HT, KYN e Xa. Não houve modificação nos metabólitos do Trp nos animais de segunda geração. Estes resultados mostram que a desnutrição perinatal provoca alterações em curto e longo prazo no metabolismo cerebral do Trp, porém que não são transmitidas para a segunda geração.

A via das Quinureninas (Via Quin) representa a principal via catabólica do metabolismo do triptofano (Trp) e é essencial para diversos processos fisiológicos. No fígado, o Trp é catalisado por triptofano 2,3-dioxigenase (TDO) quinurenina (Quin). A mesma reação também pode ser catalisada pela enzima indolamina 2,3-dioxigenase (IDO), produzida por células imunológicas. Em alguns processos patológicos, há um aumento do consumo de Trp pela Via Quin, que gera compostos que estão relacionados ao processo de imunotolerância. No presente estudo, foram selecionados dois modelos que mimetizam situações associadas às alterações da resposta imunológica: a restrição de sono e a obesidade. A partir do conhecimento das alterações na resposta imune nessas condições, geramos a hipótese de que parte do mecanismo se dê a partir da indução do catabolismo de Trp pela via Quin. Desse modo, foram investigadas as concentrações séricas e hepáticas de Trp nesses modelos experimentais, modelos esses que foram utilizados em outros projetos do nosso grupo de pesquisa. Não houve diferença significativa na concentração de Quin sérica e hepática entre os camundongos C57BL/6J restritos de sono (3 hs/15 dias), privação de sono paradoxal (72 hs) e período rebote (24 hs). A razão Quin/Trp também não diferiu entre os grupos RS e controle. Igualmente não houve diferenças estatísticas na concentração de Quin plasmática nos modelos privação de sono paradoxal e período rebote realizados em ratos Wistar. O mesmo foi observado em camundongos Swiss e camundongos C57BL/6J submetidos a protocolos experimentais de obesidade: ração hiperlipídica (21 dias) e de síndrome metabólica (20 semanas de ração hiperlipídica). Tais resultados sugerem que as alterações na resposta imunológica nesses quadros não estão associadas ao catabolismo de Trp. / The Kynurenine pathway (Kyn pathway) is the major catabolic pathway of tryptophan metabolism (Trp) and it is essential for many physiological processes. In the liver, Trp is catalyzed by tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO), producing kynurenine (Kyn). The same reaction can also be catalyzed by the enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), produced by immune cells. In some pathological conditions, there is a high Trp consumption by Kyn pathway, that generate compounds related to immune tolerance. In this study, we chose two models strongly associated with changes in the immune response: sleep restriction and obesity. From the knowledge that there are immune response alterations in those conditions, we generated the hypotesis that in part, those alterations are correlated with induction the Trp catabolism by Kyn pathway. Thus, serum and liver concentrations of Trp and Kyn were investigated in these experimental models that have been used in other projects of our research group. There was no significant difference in concentration of Kyn in serum and liver among mice C57BL/6J induced to restricted sleep (3 hours / 15 days), paradoxical sleep deprivation (72 hours) and rebound period (24 hours). The Kyn/Trp ratio did not differ between control group and RS group. Also there were no statistical differences in plasma concentration of Kyn in paradoxical sleep deprivation and rebound period models performed in rats Wistar. The same profile was also observed in Swiss e C57BL/6J mice subjected to experimental obesity protocols: fat diet (21 days) and metabolic syndrome (20 weeks of fat diet). These results suggest that changes in the immune response in the conditions tested above are not associated with Trp catabolism.

Triptofano (TRP) é metabolizado por duas vias, a via serotonérgica e a via das quinureninas. Na via serotonérgica, TRP é metabolizado a serotonina (5-HT) e, em algumas células, à melatonina (MLT) que pode ser oxidada à N1-acetil-N2-formil-5- metoxiquinuramina (AFMK) e N1-acetil-5-metoxiquinuramina (AMK) por ação de peroxidases. Na via das quinureninas o TRP é diretamente metabolizado à N formilquinurenina (NFK) e em seguida a quinurenina (QUIN). A enzima indolamina 2, 3 dioxigenase (IDO) é uma das responsáveis por esta reação. Dada a importância da IDO na tolerância imunológica e pelo fato desta enzima ser induzível nos propusemos a avaliar a existência de uma regulação cruzada entre esta enzima e a via serotonérgica. Avaliando a interferência de AMK sobre a ação de IDO e a interferência de QUIN sobre a formação de AFMK por peroxidases, observamos uma possível interação entre as vias. AMK é um inibidor competitivo clássico de IDO e o Ki encontrado foi de 0,98 mM. QUIN é um inibidor acompetitivo linear simples da formação de AFMK e o Ki encontrado foi de 0,1 mM. A inibição da formação de AFMK também ocorre para a peroxidase humana (mieloperoxidase, MPO). Além de representarem uma regulação cruzada utilizada in vivo, as inibições encontradas podem ser relevantes para a proposta de novos inibidores de IDO e MPO na terapia imunomodulatória. Dado o nosso interesse pelas enzimas IDO e MPO, avaliamos ainda a localização intracelular destas enzimas em células de peritônio de camundongo, tanto residente como ativada com concanavalina A (Con A). O estímulo com Con A representa uma ativação de linfócitos T mediado por interferon gama (IFN-γ) e foi usado como modelo experimental para avaliar condições de localização em células ativadas. Por imunocitoquímica verificamos que IDO e MPO localizam-se próxima à membrana plasmática sendo que uma leve dispersão apenas de MPO foi observada em células ativadas com Con A. A localização intracelular das duas enzimas é no citoplasma, vesículas e núcleo. Curiosamente, verificamos MPO em células isoladas e também em agrupamentos celulares de duas ou mais células. Por citometria de fluxo identificamos macrófagos, linfócitos B1 e agrupamentos celulares como células que contém MPO. A mobilização de MPO durante a ativação celular, a presença de MPO em linfócitos e a presença de MPO e IDO em núcleos são informações novas que sugerem novas atividades para estas enzimas. / Tryptophan (TRP) is metabolized by two mains pathways, the serotoninergic pathway and the kynurenine pathway. In the serotoninergic pathway, TRP is metabolized to serotonin (5-HT) and, in some cells, to melatonin (MLT). The later can even be oxidized to acetyl-N1-N2-formyl-5-methoxykynuramine (AFMK) and N1-acetyl-5 -methoxykynuramine (AMK) by peroxidases. In the kynurenine pathway, TRP is metabolized to N-formylkynurenine (NFK) and to kynurenine (KYN). Indoleamine 2, 3 dioxygenase (IDO) is one of those responsible for this reaction. Since IDO is importat in immune tolerance and the fact that this enzyme is inducible by cytokines we proposed whether there is a cross regulation between this enzyme and the serotoninergic pathway. A possible interaction between MLT and TRP oxidation pathways was shown by the AMK influence on IDO activity and QUIN interference on AFMK formation by peroxidases. AMK was shown to be an IDO classical competitive inhibitor with a Ki of 0.98 mM. QUIN was a peroxidase (horseradish peroxidase, HRP) classical uncompetitive inhibitor and Ki was found to be 0,1 mM. AFMK formation inhibition was also found in human peroxidase (myeloperoxidase, MPO). Beyond the in vivo crosstalk, new IDO and MPO inhibitors in immunomodulatory therapy would be proposed by the compounds shown in this study. Given our interest in IDO and MPO, we also evaluated their intracellular localization in both resident and concanavalin A (Con A) activated mice peritoneum cells. Con A stimulation is a IFN-γ mediated T lymphocytes activation and was our experimental model to evaluate activated cells. In light microscopy we observed IDO and MPO localization near the membrane and MPO only had a dispersed localization in Con A activated cells. Cytoplasm, nucleus and vesicles were the intracellular localization of both enzymes. Interestingly, we found MPO in isolated cells and in cell clusters of two or more cells. MPO was founded on macrophages, B1 cells and cell clusters by flow cytometry. The MPO mobilization during cell activation, the presence of MPO in lymphocytes and the presence of MPO and IDO in nuclei are new informations to suggest new activities for these enzymes.

Our gut microbiota is involved in human development, nutrition, and the pathogenesis of gut disorders, but has more recently been implicated as a possible mechanism in the pathophysiology of several brain disorders, including disorders of mood and affect, such as depression. Researchers have referred to this dynamic, bidirectional signaling pathway between the gut and the brain as the “gut-brain axis.” However, most research on this axis has been limited to rodent studies, and there has been little insight into the mechanism behind it. I propose that the kynurenine pathway, where tryptophan is converted to kynurenine, is a compelling mechanism mediating the gut microbiota’s influence on depression. Kynurenine is a metabolite associated with depression, and this pathway has been shown to be manipulated through probiotic (Lactobacillus reuteri) consumption. I propose to study a probiotic intervention in humans, which would assess tryptophan metabolism along the kynurenine pathway by measuring metabolites downstream of this pathway. Urine, feces and blood samples would be collected from two groups, control and probiotic treatment, on day zero and day thirty. Colonic biopsies would be obtained on day thirty, and various analyses would be run to measure metabolite concentrations from the collected samples. The results from this study will help clarify a mechanistic connection between gut microbes and depression via the kynurenine pathway. Additionally, findings could indicate that a probiotic intervention has the ability to influence depressive behavior via a two-pronged approach originating from the kynurenine pathway.

The essential amino acid tryptophan is an important substrate for the synthesis of serotonin, melatonin, tryptamine, proteins and the kynurenines. The aim of this study was to investigate tryptophan metabolism along the kynurenine pathway in a low income sub- Saharan HIV/AIDS patient population from the Gauteng Province of South Africa. The first objective was to develop and validate a novel gas chromatography mass spectrometry method to enable reliable quantification of tryptophan and metabolites of the kynurenine pathway in plasma. Validation parameters for the detection of tryptophan, kynurenine, quinolinic acid and nicotinamide conformed to international criteria for newly developed methods. The next objective of the study was to find an appropriate biomarker against which to express the results. Several substances previously described as indicators were assessed and compared, including plasma neopterin, procalcitonin, C-reactive protein, the cytokines IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF, and IFN-gamma, as well as factors routinely measured and elsewhere described as biomarkers in HIV, i.e., albumin, the albumin/globulin ratio, haemoglobin and red cell distribution width. Neopterin was shown to be superior as indicator of pro-inflammatory status, as indicator of the degree of immune deficiency, to predict disease progression, to distinguish between patients with and without tuberculosis co-infection and to reflect the success of highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART). In the analyses of the kynurenine pathway metabolites, tryptophan levels were seen to be significantly lower (24.36 ± 4.14 vs. 43.57 ± 11.85 μmol/l; p<0.0001), while the activity of the enzyme, indoleamine 2,3 dioxygenase (IDO), (K/T:136.03 vs. 52.18; p<0.001), as well as kynurenine (3.21 ± 1.33 vs. 2.14 ± 0.45 μmol/l; p<0.001) and quinolinic acid (4.46 ± 2.32 vs. 0.25 ± 0.058 μmol/l; p<0.001) levels were significantly higher in the total patient group (n=105) than in the control group (n=60). Patients on HAART showed not only significantly higher CD4 counts (296.21 ± 195.50 vs. 170.05 ± 167.26 cells/μl; p=0.003), but also lower inflammatory activity (neopterin: 35.51 ± 35.70 vs. 66.63 ± 40.73 nmol/l; p<0.001 and IL-6: 9.56 ± 12.54 vs. 15.04 ± 19.34 pg/ml; p<0.05), lower IFN-γ (41.43 ± 14.14 vs. 53.68±34.39 pg/ml; p<0.05), higher tryptophan levels (25.13 ± 3.80 vs. 22.04 ± 4.32 μmol/l; p=0.033), lower kynurenine levels (3.08 ± 1.28 vs. 3.58 ± 1.42 μmol/l; p=0.144) and lower quinolinic acid levels (4.03 ± 2.04 vs. 5.77 ± 2.65μmol/l; p=0.072) than patients not on HAART. Tryptophan depletion and IDO activity, as well as the levels of kynurenine and quinolinic acid, were generally greater than in populations from developed countries. Indications are that this can be ascribed to higher levels of inflammatory activity at comparable levels of immune deficiency in the disadvantaged population of this study. The degree of tryptophan depletion and quinolinic acid accumulation found could negatively impact on the physical and neuropsychiatric wellness of the population. Correlations between quinolinic acid, and nicotinamide levels showed a significant contribution of kynurenine pathway metabolism to the plasma levels of nicotinamide. This de novo synthesis of nicotinamide could offer protection against niacin deficiency and NAD depletion in populations with inadequate dietary intake. This is the first study to assess plasma tryptophan, kynurenine, quinolinic acid and nicotinamide levels, as well as IDO activity, pro-inflammatory status and IFN-γ levels, simultaneously in one population and to compare it to that of HIV/AIDS patients in developed countries. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2015. / tm2015 / Physiology / PhD / Unrestricted

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The enteric nervous system (ENS) is an incredibly complex neural network that is extensively integrated within the neuroimmunoendocrine system through countless signalling pathways that have yet to be fully characterized. In the last decade we have discovered that many more neurotransmitters are at work in the ENS than was originally thought. This opens up new avenues of research into physiological phenomena traditionally thought to be associated only with the central nervous system, such as NMDA receptor-induced excitotoxicity, and how these may influence immune interactions. In particular, the kynurenine pathway of the tryptophan catabolism produces many neuro-active and immuno-active constituents whose effects are unknown in the ENS but are of great consequence in many neurodegenerative disorders of the CNS. Our study hypothesized that co-culture of the enteric neurons with mast cells would increase neuronal survival through kynurenic acid production in quinolinic acid (QUIN)-induced excitotoxic conditions. This study developed a novel in vitro co-culture system of enteric neurons and glia grown from murine longitudinal muscle-myenteric plexus tissue and bone marrow-derived mast cells. In addition, a pipeline in image analysis software CellProfiler was designed and optimized in order to reduce human bias and error in subsequent immunocytochemical image analysis. Furthermore, we identified the genetic expression of subunits of the NMDA glutamate receptor in cultured enteric neurons via PCR, which suggests that these cultured neurons may be susceptible to excitotoxicity. PCR analysis of cultured mast cells seemed to indicate that our cultured mast cells do not express KAT-III, the enzyme needed to produce the neuroprotective KYNA. Overall, co-culture with mast cells seemed to decrease neuronal survival. This project developed a novel methodology for the in vivo study of mast cell-nerve interactions, and lays the groundwork for future studies in excitotoxicity in the ENS. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / The enteric nervous system is a vast web of nerves and immune cells that innervates the gut and interacts with the central nervous system through the gut-brain axis. An important mediator in this system is the mast cell, a type of immune cell often involved in protective responses to venoms and allergens. Intriguingly, in normal physiological conditions these cells are in close contact with nerves in the periphery, despite their potential to release damaging constituents. While mast cells are well-known for inciting inflammation and releasing toxic granules, they can also synthesize and release potentially beneficial neuroactive compounds, such as neurotransmitters or growth factors. The aim of this study was to characterize mast cell-nerve interactions in neurotoxic conditions, to see if the proximity of mast cells to nerves might serve a neuroprotective purpose.

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A enzima indolamina 2,3-dioxigenase (IDO) é responsável pela degradação de triptofano (TRP) pela via das quinureninas. O aumento da expressão de IDO é a grande responsável pela resposta de tolerância imunológica e pode ser induzida por IFN-&#947; e lipopolissacarídeos (LPS). É conhecido que a IDO participa do mecanismo de imuno escape de células tumorais, sendo relatada como marcadora de progressão tumoral. Desta forma, a inibição da atividade da IDO para a restauração da imunidade anti-tumoral do hospedeiro tem sido considerada uma estratégia para a terapêutica antineoplásica. N,N-dimetiltriptamina (DMT) e triptamina (TRY) são compostos indólicos de origem endógena, provenientes de uma rota paralela de metabolismo do triptofano - a rota das triptaminas, que ocorre principalmente no sistema nervoso central. O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar se DMT e TRY modulariam a atividade de IDO. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram ações inibitórias para ambos os compostos e as cinéticas enzimáticas revelaram Ki de 506&#181;M para o DMT e de 156&#181;M para a TRY, com perfis inibitórios característicos de inibidores não-competitivos clássicos. A atividade inibitória foi também observada sobre a enzima IDO expressa constitutivamente, ou induzida por IFN-&#947;, em células da linhagem de glioblastoma humano A172. Nesta mesma linhagem, em estudo paralelo do grupo, foi avaliada a influência de DMT e TRY sobre a expressão gênica da enzima IDO. Concluímos que nas células a ação inibitória dos compostos avaliados é exercida diretamente sobre sua atividade enzimática, sem redução de sua transcrição. Os resultados deste estudo também serviram como base para estudos da atividade inibitória da DMT e TRY em sistema de co-cultura das células A172 com células mononucleares humanas, onde foi observada redução significativa da atividade enzimática e da proliferação das células tumorais. Em conclusão mostramos a possibilidade de que a via das triptaminas, através de seus metabólitos, possa contribuir com a regulação endógena da via das quinureninas e que o DMT e a TRY deveriam ser avaliados como candidatos a inibidores farmacológicos da enzima IDO e/ou como protótipos para a síntese de novos inibidores. / Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) is a tryptophan-degrading enzyme via the kynurenine pathway. Increased IDO expression is largely responsible for the immune tolerance response and can be induced by IFN-&#947; and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). It is known that IDO participates in the mechanism of tumor immune tolerance and have been reported as a tumor progression marker. Thus, to restore the anti-tumor immunity of the host, IDO inhibition has been considered as a strategy for anticancer therapy. N, N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and tryptamine (TRY) are endogenous indolic compounds originated from a parallel route of tryptophan metabolism - the tryptamines route, which occurs mainly in the central nervous system. This study aimed to assess whether DMT and TRY modulate the IDO activity. The results showed inhibitory actions for both compounds and enzyme kinetics revealed Ki = 506&#181;M to DMT and Ki = 156&#181;M to TRY, with inhibitory profiles characteristic of classical non-competitive inhibitors. The inhibitory activity was also observed on the IDO constitutively expressed or induced by IFN-&#947; in A172 human glioblastom cell line. Using the same line, in parallel group study, we evaluated the influence of DMT and TRY on the IDO gene expression. We conclude that in cells the evaluated compounds inhibitory action is exerted directly on its enzymatic activity without reduction of its transcription. The results of this study also served as the basis for studies of DMT and TRY inhibitory activity in A172 cells with human mononuclear cells co-culture system, in which was observed significant reduction in enzyme activity and tumor cells proliferation. In conclusion we show the possibility that the tryptamines route, through its metabolites, may contribute to quinurenines pathway endogenous regulation and that DMT and TRY should be evaluated as IDO pharmacological inhibitors candidates and / or as prototypes to new inhibitors synthesis.