O Protocolo de Quioto foi ratificado em Fevereiro de 2005 e com isso um mercado que vinha caminhando sem regras formais, contando com o pioneirismo de algumas empresas interessadas em aprender a lidar com esta nova commodity e preocupadas com a sua imagem corporativa, passou de fato às vias da formalidade. Assim, uma vez que o mercado de Reduções Certificadas de Emissões (RCEs) possui um arcabouço institucional estabelecido, é interessante estudar com base na Economia dos Custos de Transação (ECT), como os custos de transação induziram modos alternativos de governança, em particular os contratos entre empresas proponentes de projetos de MDL (Mecanismo de Desenvolvimento Limpo) e os canais de comercialização constituídos por organizações multilaterais. E esse estudo, conforme as recomendações de Williamson (1993; 1991; 1985), foi feito analisando as características das transações em termos de especificidade de ativos, freqüência e incerteza, dados os pressupostos comportamentais dos agentes (racionalidade limitada e oportunismo). Para tanto, a pesquisa lançou mão do método do estudo de caso para obter informações privadas sobre as transações de RCEs, e seus respectivos contratos, entre as empresas brasileiras e uma organização multilateral, o Banco Mundial. Um resultado é que, diferente das relações via mercado, as empresas brasileiras se beneficiaram - em termos de redução dos custos de transação - da transação de RCEs (via contrato) com o Banco Mundial, já que este exerce todas as funções de um típico canal de distribuição, exceto a de aquisição dos direitos de propriedade sobre os créditos. / The Kyoto Protocol was approved in February 2005 and the carbon market that was without rules, played by some pioneer companies interested in learning by doing with this new commodity and worried about their corporate image, started working in the ways of the formality. As the market of Certified Emissions Reduction (CER) has already an established Institutional Environment, it’s interesting to study, based on the Transaction Costs Economics (TCE) theory, how the transaction costs induced alternative ways of governance, in particular the contracts between Brazilian companies – with CDM (Clean Development Mechanism) projects - and the commercialization channels in multi-lateral organizations. This study, as the recommendations of Williamson (1993; 1991; 1985), was made analyzing the characteristics of the transactions in terms of asset specificity, frequency and uncertainty, considering the human behavior assumptions (limited rationality and opportunism). For this, the research used the case studies method to obtain private information about the transactions of CER, and their contracts, between Brazilian companies and a multi-lateral organization, the World Bank. A result is that, differently of the spot market relationship, the Brazilian CDM projects benefited - in terms of reduction of transaction costs – with the CERs transactions (contracts) involving the World Bank, since this bank realizes every distribution channel functions, except the acquisition of CERs property rights.

A destinação final dos resíduos sólidos domiciliares (RSD) constitui, em nosso país, um problema de graves proporções. Os impactos ambientais e sociais que representam as práticas de aterramento desses resíduos conjugam-se, nas grandes cidades, com a carência de áreas apropriadas a estas finalidades devido aos elevados (e crescentes) índices de concentração demográfica e de ocupação imobiliária. As práticas de aterramento dos RSD em lixões, aterros controlados ou em aterros sanitários constituem, em nosso país, o método fundamental de destinação final destes resíduos, causando graves alterações no espaço geográfico. Diante disso, existem, em operação há mais de três décadas em países da Europa e em outros locais, tecnologias avançadas de incineração dos RSD, que os transformam em energia térmica e elétrica. As justificativas ao fato de não existirem, ainda, em operação no nosso país essas usinas de incineração dos RSD remetem-se às dúvidas quanto à superioridade de seu desempenho econômico e ambiental em relação aos processos de aterramento destes resíduos. Este trabalho de pesquisa demonstra a superioridade econômica e ambiental dos modernos métodos de incineração dos RSD e questiona as políticas internacionais de transferência de tecnologias para o cuidado de questões ambientais preconizadas sob a égide do conceito de desenvolvimento sustentável. Faz-se uma crítica aos limites da Economia Ambiental, que atém-se aos aspectos de preservação ecológica sem definir horizontes econômicos a serem buscados através das atividades humanas, e demonstra-se alguns efeitos que o mercado internacional dos créditos de carbono, instituído a partir da ratificação do protocolo de Kyoto, vem exercendo na gestão dos RSD num país como o Brasil. / The final destination of domiciliar solid residues (DSR) triggers a problem of serious proportions in our country. Social and environmental impacts caused by earthing practices of these residues are combined, in big cities, with the lack of appropriate disposal areas due to escalating levels of demographic concentration and real estate occupation. Earthing practices of DSR in dumping grounds, controlled landfills or sanitary landfills constitute the main final destination method of residues, causing severe changes in the geographic space. Europe and other countries have been using, for more than three decades, advanced DSR incineration technics that transform the waste in thermic and electric energy. Our justification for not using the aforementioned units is due to the fact that there are doubts concerning the superiority of economic and environmental performances when compared to earthing processes. This research work displays the environmental and economic superiority of modern DSR incineration methods, and discusses international policies of transferring technology regarding environmental issues idealized on the concept of the sustainable development. Criticism is also mode towards the limits established by Environmental Economy, which clings to ecological preservation aspects without defining economic horizons to be achieved through the human activity. We finally demonstrate the influence of the carbon credits\' international market on the DSR management in a country like Brazil since the ratification of the Kyoto protocol.

A presente dissertação discute as questões relacionadas à intensificação das mudanças climáticas por causas antrópicas conforme a evolução no uso dos recursos naturais, inovações nos processos produtivos, transformações econômicas, sociais, culturais, políticas e, especialmente ambientais. Aborda a comercialização dos créditos de carbono através de projetos de Mecanismo de Desenvolvimento Limpo (MDL), um dos mecanismos de flexibilização criados pelo Protocolo de Kyoto. No contexto de mudanças climáticas, uma matriz energética que utilize fontes de energia que não emitam gases causadores do efeito estufa (GEE) se mostra uma importante estratégia de desenvolvimento sustentável. Sob essa perspectiva, a energia nucleoelétrica é apresentada como uma alternativa viável aos combustíveis fósseis, considerando que esta é uma energia limpa e compatível com a perspectiva de desenvolvimento sustentável. A Fábrica de Combustível Nuclear (FCN), localizada em Resende (Rio de Janeiro), pertencente às Indústrias Nucleares do Brasil (INB), é um conjunto de sofisticadas fábricas nas quais se processam etapas importantes do ciclo do combustível nuclear. Na FCN, o Centro Zoobotânico realiza a gestão das atividades voltadas para a conservação da natureza tais como o Programa de Recuperação de Mata Ciliar, Reflorestamento e Fauna. O Relatório de inventário das emissões diretas e indiretas de GEE da FCN, elaborado pela INB para o ano de 2008, permite a auto-avaliação da empresa, retratando a preocupação corporativa com as questões relativas às mudanças climáticas. Segundo este Relatório, o total de emissões de GEE quantificado corresponde a 12,14% da capacidade total de sequestro de dióxido de carbono, no período de Janeiro a Dezembro de 2008. A proteção de florestas e a plantação de árvores são componentes essenciais de qualquer estratégia global para mitigação da mudança climática, e a participação da INB no mercado de crédito de carbono pode proporcionar externalidades positivas, tais como ganhos de imagem, adequação a padrões ambientais e melhoria do relacionamento com a sociedade. / This dissertation discusses issues related to intensification of climate change by anthropogenic causes for the evolution in use of natural resources, innovations in production processes, economic, social, cultural, political and especially environmental. Approaches marketing of carbon credits through projects of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), one of the flexible mechanisms created by the Kyoto Protocol. In context of climate change, an energy matrix that uses energy sources that do not emit greenhouse gases (GHG) proves an important strategy for sustainable development. From this perspective, the nuclear-electric energy is presented as a viable alternative to fossil fuels, considering that this is a clean energy and compatible with sustainable development perspective. The Nuclear Fuel Factory (FCN), located in Resende (Rio de Janeiro), belonging to the Nuclear Industries of Brazil (INB), is a sophisticated set of factories where important steps of nuclear fuel cycle are processed. In FCN, the Zoobotanical Center performs the management of activities for conservation of natures, as the Recovery Program of Riparian Vegetation, Forestry and Wildlife. The report of inventory of direct and indirect emissions of greenhouse gases from FCN, produced by INB for the year 2008, allows the self-assessment of the company,portraying the corporate preoccupation with issues related to climate change. According to the report, total GHG emissions measured corresponds to 12.14% of the total capacity of sequestration of carbon dioxide in the period January to December 2008. Protecting forests and planting trees are essential components of any comprehensive strategy for mitigating climate change and the share of INB in the carbon credit market can provide positive externalities, such as earnings picture, fitness for environmental standards and improving the relationship with society.

O presente trabalho tem o objetivo de entender o contexto atual das ações para mitigar mudanças perigosas do clima e o momento de transição do setor elétrico brasileiro. Ao reconhecer o potencial de sinergia, são apresentadas três contribuições: ao cálculo do fator de emissão de linha de base para geração de eletricidade conectada à rede a partir de fontes renováveis, à avaliação do potencial do MDL em influenciar a expansão da capacidade de geração de eletricidade no Brasil e, finalmente, uma proposta de política pública para fazer convergir os objetivos da Convenção do Clima e do planejamento do setor elétrico brasileiro. O Brasil tem uma matriz elétrica relativamente limpa, mas isso não necessariamente quer dizer que as emissões evitadas na margem da nova geração serão pequenas. Ao apresentar a evolução das metodologias de quantificação dos fatores de emissão do cenário de referência (linha de base), emerge uma proposta de cálculo de fator de emissão da margem de construção - baseado nos resultados dos leilões de energia nova - que indica um potencial de redução de emissões bastante maior que a prática atual. Para testar a proposta de cálculo do fator de emissão, um modelo de expansão da capacidade de geração é desenvolvido e identificado com os resultados dos leilões de energia. O modelo é então utilizado em conjunto com a proposta de nova metodologia de cálculo de fator de emissão para testar a capacidade do MDL de influenciar decisões de investimento. O resultado dessa simulação demonstra que o cenário existente no final de 2007 tem um potencial significativo de influenciar a expansão do parque gerador brasileiro. Finalmente, é apresentada uma proposta de inserção do MDL nos leilões de energia alternativa para aproveitar a sinergia entre o desejo de diversificação da matriz elétrica brasileira e a utilização de mecanismos de mercado na redução de emissões de gases de efeito estufa, ajudando o Brasil a atingir um desenvolvimento mais sustentável. / The present work identifies the context of the existing actions to mitigate dangerous climate change and the transition period experienced by the Brazilian power sector. In order to use the potential synergy identified three contributions are made: a methodology to calculate baseline emission factor for grid-connected electricity generation from renewable sources, an evaluation of the potential of the CDM to contribute to the power capacity expansion in Brazil and finally, a public policy proposal is made to convene the aims of the UNFCCC and the development of the Brazilian power sector. The estimated greenhouse gases emission factor of the Brazilian power sector is relatively small; nevertheless build margin emission factor will not necessarily stay small. While showing the evolution of the methodologies used to calculate the baseline emission factor in the power sector, a new proposal for the calculation of the build margin emissions factor base in the results of the recent new energy auctions arises, indicating a noteworthy emission reduction potential. In order to test the influence of the proposed baseline emission factor calculation a model is developed to simulate the power sector expansion. The model is then identified with the data of the new energy auction of the last years. The results of the simulations show that the actual conditions of the CDM market already have the capacity to modify the recent trend of new additions. Finally, it is suggested the consideration of the CDM benefits in the public auctions towards the addition of renewable energy based power generation. The potential results are the contribution to the ultimate objective of the UNFCCC - greenhouse gases emission reductions - and the assistance to sustainable development in Brazil with an increased share of renewable energy base power generation.

O presente trabalho tem o objetivo de entender o contexto atual das ações para mitigar mudanças perigosas do clima e o momento de transição do setor elétrico brasileiro. Ao reconhecer o potencial de sinergia, são apresentadas três contribuições: ao cálculo do fator de emissão de linha de base para geração de eletricidade conectada à rede a partir de fontes renováveis, à avaliação do potencial do MDL em influenciar a expansão da capacidade de geração de eletricidade no Brasil e, finalmente, uma proposta de política pública para fazer convergir os objetivos da Convenção do Clima e do planejamento do setor elétrico brasileiro. O Brasil tem uma matriz elétrica relativamente limpa, mas isso não necessariamente quer dizer que as emissões evitadas na margem da nova geração serão pequenas. Ao apresentar a evolução das metodologias de quantificação dos fatores de emissão do cenário de referência (linha de base), emerge uma proposta de cálculo de fator de emissão da margem de construção - baseado nos resultados dos leilões de energia nova - que indica um potencial de redução de emissões bastante maior que a prática atual. Para testar a proposta de cálculo do fator de emissão, um modelo de expansão da capacidade de geração é desenvolvido e identificado com os resultados dos leilões de energia. O modelo é então utilizado em conjunto com a proposta de nova metodologia de cálculo de fator de emissão para testar a capacidade do MDL de influenciar decisões de investimento. O resultado dessa simulação demonstra que o cenário existente no final de 2007 tem um potencial significativo de influenciar a expansão do parque gerador brasileiro. Finalmente, é apresentada uma proposta de inserção do MDL nos leilões de energia alternativa para aproveitar a sinergia entre o desejo de diversificação da matriz elétrica brasileira e a utilização de mecanismos de mercado na redução de emissões de gases de efeito estufa, ajudando o Brasil a atingir um desenvolvimento mais sustentável. / The present work identifies the context of the existing actions to mitigate dangerous climate change and the transition period experienced by the Brazilian power sector. In order to use the potential synergy identified three contributions are made: a methodology to calculate baseline emission factor for grid-connected electricity generation from renewable sources, an evaluation of the potential of the CDM to contribute to the power capacity expansion in Brazil and finally, a public policy proposal is made to convene the aims of the UNFCCC and the development of the Brazilian power sector. The estimated greenhouse gases emission factor of the Brazilian power sector is relatively small; nevertheless build margin emission factor will not necessarily stay small. While showing the evolution of the methodologies used to calculate the baseline emission factor in the power sector, a new proposal for the calculation of the build margin emissions factor base in the results of the recent new energy auctions arises, indicating a noteworthy emission reduction potential. In order to test the influence of the proposed baseline emission factor calculation a model is developed to simulate the power sector expansion. The model is then identified with the data of the new energy auction of the last years. The results of the simulations show that the actual conditions of the CDM market already have the capacity to modify the recent trend of new additions. Finally, it is suggested the consideration of the CDM benefits in the public auctions towards the addition of renewable energy based power generation. The potential results are the contribution to the ultimate objective of the UNFCCC - greenhouse gases emission reductions - and the assistance to sustainable development in Brazil with an increased share of renewable energy base power generation.

Climate change caused by greenhouse gas emissions has the potential to cause widespread damage to the environment. As scientific and political consensus converged on the necessity to take action, a large number of countries negotiated the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 1997, with the goal of limiting these emissions. Australia under the Howard Government initially played an important part in these negotiations, but refused to ratify the Protocol. The government cited the lack of binding targets on developing countries and the potential for harm to the Australian economy as the reasons it rejected the agreement. International relations theory studies large-scale political forces and analyses their interplay in the global political system. Realism is a model of international relations that views countries as self-interested, security-driven bodies that exist in a state of international anarchy. This study examines whether realist theory offers a satisfactory explanation for the Howard Government’s decision not to ratify the Kyoto Protocol. The study focuses on six realist ideas and examines the evidence for each. Based on thematic analysis of textual data taken from official political archives and newspapers from 1998–2004, it suggests that realist theory does provide an adequate explanation of the Howard Government’s rejection of the Kyoto Protocol.

Abstract That greenhouse gas (GHG) emission causes ¡§Global Warming¡¨ is a human common problem today in the earth. The GHG emission will gradually promote our weather temperature and change which we must pay for a lot. For example, the warming temperature will dissolve icebergs, that it will elevate the sea level. Also, our land area will decrease. If climate zones were shifted, it would be possible to initiate some animals migrate. In the worse case, our living space will be squeezed and some special diseases will be spread out¡Ketc. In view of environmental protection awareness in every country, we must face the problem and crisis which comes from ¡§Global Warming¡¨ and ¡§Heating Pollution¡¨. In June of 1992, there was a meeting in Rio of Brazil. All representatives who comes from 153 different countries sign an agreement ¡V the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). They try to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations at a level that would prevent dangerous interference with the climate and environmental system. To achieve this goal, the Kyoto Protocol was adopted on COP3 in December 1997 to place legally binding limits on GHG emissions. This Protocol norms 38 countries and European Union. In June 2007, the Group of Eight (G8) have reached a consensus and expect in year 2050, CO2 emissions can be reduced to the half of current emissions. We can see that, every country is vigorous to look for alternative energy that eliminates the environment destroyed and saves the earth resources. For example, Solar Energy, Water Energy, Wind Energy, Biomass Energy, Ocean Energy and Geothermal Energy¡Ketc. Those are gradually developed and applied in our daily life. My research is focus on the LED applications based on the substitution of traditional lighting. Actually, LED has all advantage of the energy saving, eco-lighting and economy of scale. How to use this alternative lighting is of great urgency and the major topic in light source manufacturers. For example, if America can replace their 55% white heat bulbs and 55% fluorescent lamps by LED before 2010, they can save 35 billion US dollars every year. For Japan, if they replace 100% white heat bulbs, they can save one to two of Nuclear Power Plants. Also, they can save above 100 million of gasoline every year. As to Taiwan official estimation, we can save 11 billion electricity degrees every year when we replace 25% white heat bulbs and 100% fluorescent lamps. That electric power is approximate to save one Nuclear Power Plant and 50 million of gasoline every year. According to the data above, the population of LED will give us a lot of eco-benefits. My report leans on researching and treating LED. Then, I take one step ahead to demonstrate how important it is to apply LED on our human light source and the effects of earth environment. Keywords: Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Global Warming United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Kyoto Protocol Biomass Energy LED - Light Emitting Diode (display)

With its national strength, the United States is, more often than not, a major State initiating the making of important international multilateral treaties and shaping the final outcome by wielding its influence in the negotiation processes. Nevertheless, three major international multilateral treaties concluded in three different domains all appear the same situation in which the U.S. participated actively in the negotiations but ended up rejecting to sign or ratify due to their inconformities with American ¡§national interests.¡¨ The purpose of this thesis is to examine the American proposals and interventions made in the negotiating processes of three important international multilateral treaties, i.e., the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Kyoto Protocol and Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, so as to understand American negotiation stances as well as the issues to which the U.S. attached importance to and the derive the substantive contents of the ¡§national interests¡¨ that the U.S. held dear. Furthermore, this thesis takes one step further to analyze who were the actors that shaped and defined the ¡§national interests¡¨ which the U.S. valued and held tight.

This research work explored the environmental and socio-economic benefits derived, if some proportion of daily passenger trips made using private cars in Ghana could be shifted to the use of public transport. The research applied the computer software COPERT III in estimating road transport Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and fuel consumption in Ghana for the base year 2005 and forecast years 2010 and 2020. The research reveals that if no major change occur in policies or economic determinants in meeting road transport and energy in Ghana, then the 2005 total emissions value is expected to rise by 36% in 2010 and over double in 2020 i.e. from 4.6 to 6.25 in 2010 and to 9.77 Mt CO2e in 2020. However, if just 10% of daily passenger trips using private cars can be shifted towards the use of public transport, then the end results in reduction in emissions could earn Ghana about $USD 6.6million/year under the Kyoto Protocol CDM initiative. The research also demonstrated that with a further 10% daily passenger trip shift, the outcome could be more promising, increasing to $USD 13million/year.

Today, global warming is commonly known due to the major impact on the earth’s weather conditions. The increase in the average temperature of the lower atmosphere is causing a drastic change in weather conditions. Human intervention is the main cause of global warming and the latter will be limited if greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions are reduced by individuals and companies in all countries around the world. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the biggest contributors of GHGs and, therefore, a number of measures were implemented to reduce CO2 emissions. In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol was signed by the Annex 1 countries, of which South Africa is not part, under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to reduce GHG emissions. It is not only the responsibility of the Annex 1 countries to stabilise global warming, but all countries have to contribute to the reduction of GHG emissions. Enabling countries to meet these reduction targets, they implemented the following measures: carbon tax, Energy Service Companies (ESCOs) and carbon credits. Carbon tax has been implemented in many countries over the last decade with different levels of success. Carbon tax will be implemented in South Africa during 2013/2014. ESCOs have been implemented to assist companies with the implementation of energy saving projects. These projects will assist in reducing carbon emissions and meeting the set targets and it will also assist in reducing the effect of carbon tax. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects are implemented under the UNFCCC for companies that want to register carbon reduction projects. If the projects meet the CDM registration criteria, the project can be registered as a CDM project and it has the ability to earn tradable carbon credits. These credits can be traded on national or international carbon trading markets. This study considered a combination of all the measures a company can implement to improve energy efficiency and thereby reducing GHG emissions. An evaluation of the feasibility of a carbon reduction project, the ‘Vaal River compressed air energy efficiency improvement project’ of AngloGold Ashanti (AGA) was performed to determine whether the project can be registered as a CDM project. It was concluded that AGA will be able to register the project as a CDM project and earn tradable carbon credits. Furthermore, it is recommended that AGA makes use of the option to finance the carbon reducing project by using external funding provided by EDF (the French equivalent of South Africa’s Eskom). / MCom (Management Accountancy)), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013