Today, global warming is commonly known due to the major impact on the earth’s weather conditions. The increase in the average temperature of the lower atmosphere is causing a drastic change in weather conditions. Human intervention is the main cause of global warming and the latter will be limited if greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions are reduced by individuals and companies in all countries around the world. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the biggest contributors of GHGs and, therefore, a number of measures were implemented to reduce CO2 emissions. In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol was signed by the Annex 1 countries, of which South Africa is not part, under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to reduce GHG emissions. It is not only the responsibility of the Annex 1 countries to stabilise global warming, but all countries have to contribute to the reduction of GHG emissions. Enabling countries to meet these reduction targets, they implemented the following measures: carbon tax, Energy Service Companies (ESCOs) and carbon credits. Carbon tax has been implemented in many countries over the last decade with different levels of success. Carbon tax will be implemented in South Africa during 2013/2014. ESCOs have been implemented to assist companies with the implementation of energy saving projects. These projects will assist in reducing carbon emissions and meeting the set targets and it will also assist in reducing the effect of carbon tax. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects are implemented under the UNFCCC for companies that want to register carbon reduction projects. If the projects meet the CDM registration criteria, the project can be registered as a CDM project and it has the ability to earn tradable carbon credits. These credits can be traded on national or international carbon trading markets. This study considered a combination of all the measures a company can implement to improve energy efficiency and thereby reducing GHG emissions. An evaluation of the feasibility of a carbon reduction project, the ‘Vaal River compressed air energy efficiency improvement project’ of AngloGold Ashanti (AGA) was performed to determine whether the project can be registered as a CDM project. It was concluded that AGA will be able to register the project as a CDM project and earn tradable carbon credits. Furthermore, it is recommended that AGA makes use of the option to finance the carbon reducing project by using external funding provided by EDF (the French equivalent of South Africa’s Eskom). / MCom (Management Accountancy)), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013

The issue of gas flaring and the attendant environmental effects have become a common sight in the Niger Delta. Apart from being a wastage of natural resources, it is a menace to the global existence of man. The incidences of acid rain and the disruption of economic life of the locals, basically farming and fishing, have led to consistent and irresistible agitation by the people of the Niger Delta for an end to gas flaring. The consistent release of harmful gases through gas flaring, with devastating effect on the surrounding environment of the Niger Delta region is discussed in this work. This dissertation examines why successive governments have not succeeded in their quest for a solution to gas flaring; policies and regulations are not being effectively implemented, and why despite the fact that flaring has been outlawed in Nigeria since 1st January 1984, it is still going on 24 years after. Flaring continues unabated undermining the consequences it has on the people and the effects on climate change. Interviews and case studies were used to examine the factors responsible for the non implementation of government policies and regulations, and why the consistent extension of flare-out deadline. Countries with outstanding results were examined in order to draw a baseline for the Nigeria situation. The research revealed that the Nigerian government has not enforced environmental regulations effectively because of its interests in the business of the multinationals. In addition there has been the dependence of environmental monitoring and regulatory agencies on government funding. This has drastically affected the proficiencies of the control and the insignificant penalties imposed on companies that flare gas. The need for government to play the role of an umpire rather than business partner with the multinationals is therefore of paramount importance. It is also pertinent that the regulatory and monitoring agencies be independent of government's supervision. More stringent measures, (ranging from more cost per a thousand standard cubic feet of gas flared to closure of platform(s) and/or outright withdrawal of license), should also be put in place to serve as deterrent to erring oil companies. / Thesis (M.Ing. (Development and Management Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Nigeria is presently being faced with a growing electricity demand problem following its population growth rate. The total installed capacity is far less than the current demand for electricity supply. As a way of bridging out this supply gap, the federal government is mobilizing all of its potential energy options. Coal is widely used for power generation in many countries. But today, the continued usage of coal for power generation is being challenged by the disturbing global warming phenomenon. This is due to the quantity of uncontrolled carbon dioxide emission from traditional coal-fired power plants. The aim of this dissertation is to critically analyse the future of the Nigerian coal power stations following the need to do carbon dioxide emission control necessary for ensuring a sustainable environment. Achieving this aim entails the appraisal of environmental regulation standards and cost structures of carbon dioxide (C02) emission reduction options for the coal power stations. Controlling carbon dioxide emission from existing coal power stations requires retrofit system that captures and effectively sequestrates the captured CO2. The cost and performance effect of the CO2 retrofit system on the existing power plant can be simulated with standard computer software models. In this study the lECM-cs computer modelling tool for power plants was used in determining the cost and performance impacts of applying an Amine-based C02 capture system to the Oji river power station in Nigeria. With the lECM-cs model, it was established that reducing C02 emission imposes an additional cost on the power plant which increases the unit cost of electricity generated. This additional cost index requires economic justification for its acceptance. This is due to the need to demonstrate its viability judging from the cost of electricity generated from other sources in the Nigerian economy. For the Oji river case, the station is old and requires extensive renovation. This causes a cost escalation over and above the cost associated with the CO2 sequestration system. As such, Oji coal power station does not have an economic future if C02 emission sequestration becomes obligatory. The future of coal power stations in Nigeria can be considered from two scenarios: one where the current national environmental standard is retained and another where it is revised. The revision classifies CO2 as a pollutant which makes its emission reduction imperative for coal power plants. Under the current standard, building modern large capacity pulverized coal-fired power plants with improved steam cycles should be encouraged. But with the review of the national standard, the focus should be on building new large capacity coal power stations with integrated CO2 emission control. This will ensure an environmentally friendly future for coal power stations in Nigeria. / Thesis (M.Ing. (Development and Management Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

The issue of gas flaring and the attendant environmental effects have become a common sight in the Niger Delta. Apart from being a wastage of natural resources, it is a menace to the global existence of man. The incidences of acid rain and the disruption of economic life of the locals, basically farming and fishing, have led to consistent and irresistible agitation by the people of the Niger Delta for an end to gas flaring. The consistent release of harmful gases through gas flaring, with devastating effect on the surrounding environment of the Niger Delta region is discussed in this work. This dissertation examines why successive governments have not succeeded in their quest for a solution to gas flaring; policies and regulations are not being effectively implemented, and why despite the fact that flaring has been outlawed in Nigeria since 1st January 1984, it is still going on 24 years after. Flaring continues unabated undermining the consequences it has on the people and the effects on climate change. Interviews and case studies were used to examine the factors responsible for the non implementation of government policies and regulations, and why the consistent extension of flare-out deadline. Countries with outstanding results were examined in order to draw a baseline for the Nigeria situation. The research revealed that the Nigerian government has not enforced environmental regulations effectively because of its interests in the business of the multinationals. In addition there has been the dependence of environmental monitoring and regulatory agencies on government funding. This has drastically affected the proficiencies of the control and the insignificant penalties imposed on companies that flare gas. The need for government to play the role of an umpire rather than business partner with the multinationals is therefore of paramount importance. It is also pertinent that the regulatory and monitoring agencies be independent of government's supervision. More stringent measures, (ranging from more cost per a thousand standard cubic feet of gas flared to closure of platform(s) and/or outright withdrawal of license), should also be put in place to serve as deterrent to erring oil companies. / Thesis (M.Ing. (Development and Management Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

Nigeria is presently being faced with a growing electricity demand problem following its population growth rate. The total installed capacity is far less than the current demand for electricity supply. As a way of bridging out this supply gap, the federal government is mobilizing all of its potential energy options. Coal is widely used for power generation in many countries. But today, the continued usage of coal for power generation is being challenged by the disturbing global warming phenomenon. This is due to the quantity of uncontrolled carbon dioxide emission from traditional coal-fired power plants. The aim of this dissertation is to critically analyse the future of the Nigerian coal power stations following the need to do carbon dioxide emission control necessary for ensuring a sustainable environment. Achieving this aim entails the appraisal of environmental regulation standards and cost structures of carbon dioxide (C02) emission reduction options for the coal power stations. Controlling carbon dioxide emission from existing coal power stations requires retrofit system that captures and effectively sequestrates the captured CO2. The cost and performance effect of the CO2 retrofit system on the existing power plant can be simulated with standard computer software models. In this study the lECM-cs computer modelling tool for power plants was used in determining the cost and performance impacts of applying an Amine-based C02 capture system to the Oji river power station in Nigeria. With the lECM-cs model, it was established that reducing C02 emission imposes an additional cost on the power plant which increases the unit cost of electricity generated. This additional cost index requires economic justification for its acceptance. This is due to the need to demonstrate its viability judging from the cost of electricity generated from other sources in the Nigerian economy. For the Oji river case, the station is old and requires extensive renovation. This causes a cost escalation over and above the cost associated with the CO2 sequestration system. As such, Oji coal power station does not have an economic future if C02 emission sequestration becomes obligatory. The future of coal power stations in Nigeria can be considered from two scenarios: one where the current national environmental standard is retained and another where it is revised. The revision classifies CO2 as a pollutant which makes its emission reduction imperative for coal power plants. Under the current standard, building modern large capacity pulverized coal-fired power plants with improved steam cycles should be encouraged. But with the review of the national standard, the focus should be on building new large capacity coal power stations with integrated CO2 emission control. This will ensure an environmentally friendly future for coal power stations in Nigeria. / Thesis (M.Ing. (Development and Management Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009.

本文採文獻歸納方式，針對全球暖化問題，以國際公共財理論作為議題緣起，分析京都彈性機制—清潔發展機制之運作。全球暖化為一純粹國際公共財問題。而京都議定書要求各國履行排放減量之標的，可作為提供公共財依據。並以排放減量份額作為供給數量之評估。而CDM即為促進各國均能參與溫室氣體減量活動之機制，達成經濟永續發展之目標。 當就不對稱關係以賽局討論國際公共財之供給，邊際成本較低國家，應從事較多公共財貢獻行動；邊際成本較高的國家則發生搭便車行為。但卻與CDM文獻結論有所不同。CDM計畫中的開發中國家因不受約束，反而有搭便車行為。多數的減量行動仍由已開發國家在境內進行。故國際公共財賽局可否用於研究CDM之運作，仍有待評估。 有關CDM在模型理論上可利用動態規劃之最適模型，研究投資國與被投資國之行為。當排放權證交易為不完全競爭市場時，可以Stackelberg模型進行。若不僅以經濟分析，尚可加入生態研究作成整合模型。在CDM執行成效方面，必須審慎評估CDM計畫型式，並考量是否合乎額外性準則。而CERs之境內分配政策，則可能會因利益交換，導致勾結行為相繼發生。此外，排放基線與CERs具有密切關聯，基線設定遂成為CDM之核心議題。有效建立CDM法則，強化合作的透明度，對於減少交易成本將佔有關鍵性地位。又CERs以選擇權出售；CDM與IIA的衝突及CDM資訊不對稱問題，都可再作研究。 儘管台灣非京都議定書締約國，無法作為CDM之地主國。僅能間接參與投資。不過國內學者多已提出產業因應措施作為諮詢。並以TAIGEM-E模型推算排放基線，建立從事溫室氣體減量行動之數據。受限於台灣國際地位，CDM計畫成效可能難以進行實證分析。不過中國和日本有許多CDM計畫，可針對較具爭議性之議題作延伸討論，並研讀相關文獻作為參考。本文即為發掘核心議題，提供文獻彙整，協助擬研究清潔發展機制者作為參議。

p. 1-131 / Submitted by Santiago Fabio (fabio.ssantiago@hotmail.com) on 2013-03-21T20:06:49Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2222ss.pdf: 1156633 bytes, checksum: c9980506218597dc5d917b70f73e6b7d (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Tatiana Lima(tatianasl@ufba.br) on 2013-04-02T18:59:13Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2222ss.pdf: 1156633 bytes, checksum: c9980506218597dc5d917b70f73e6b7d (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2013-04-02T18:59:13Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2222ss.pdf: 1156633 bytes, checksum: c9980506218597dc5d917b70f73e6b7d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2004 / O objetivo deste ensaio é compreender a formação do mercado internacional de créditos de carbono, como uma resposta político-econômica às mudanças climáticas, e analisar a conveniência e oportunidade da criação de uma política pública financeira local tendente a incentivar o desenvolvimento de projetos de mitigação de emissões. O ensaio revê as razões científicas que amparam as negociações políticas; a perspectiva histórica das negociações sobre mudanças climáticas; os grupos de interesse; os problemas de uso dos bens públicos globais; o Protocolo de Kyoto - sua arquitetura e discussão sobre os custos de cumprimento; o mercado emergente de créditos de carbono e a participação brasileira nesse mercado. A decisão americana de não ratificar o Protocolo reduz a efetividade dele para controlar as emissões de gases de efeito estufa, diminui o tamanho do mercado de créditos de carbono - em quantidades e preços. Há incertezas sobre a sorte do Protocolo depois do primeiro período de comprometimento, 2008-2012. No momento, parece não ser razoável construir uma estratégia financeira para aumentar a participação local nesse mercado. / Salvador

Résoudre la crise climatique est un défi intrinsèquement économique. Il s'agit d'inventer une nouvelle économie, moins dépendante des énergies fossiles et capable, face à l'attrait de l'immédiat, de défendre suffisamment les intérêts des générations futures. Partant de ce constat, cette étude repose sur l'idée qu'une réponse normative crédible face aux changements climatiques ne peut passer que par un droit qui soit axé sur la promotion de la transition énergétique et qui garantisse une articulation équilibrée entre les préoccupations économiques de court terme et les préoccupations, à plus long terme, liées à la préservation du climat. L'étude de La prise en compte des aspects économiques du défi climatique dans le régime juridique international du climat vise à déterminer l'importance que les membres du système multilatéral de lune contre les changements climatiques accordent à la nécessité de promouvoir la transition énergétique et d'encadrer l'expression des préoccupations économiques nationales dans le cadre de leur coopération. Fondée sur une analyse de la Convention-cadre des Nations Unies sur les changements climatiques, du Protocole de Kyoto et de leur droit dérivé, cette recherche démontre la portée limitée des outils élaborés pour réformer les modes de développement ainsi que le haut niveau de protection que la norme internationale garantit aux intérêts économiques immédiats des États. Elle démontre également que la coopération climatique multilatérale tend désormais à être marquée par un mouvement de renationalisation des questions relatives à la promotion de la transition énergétique et à l'articulation des valeurs économiques et environnementales. / Tackling climate change is indisputably an economic challenge. It requires a shift towards a new kind of economy Jess dependent on fossil fuel, and capable to protect the interests of future generations. Given that context, it thus appears essential that international climate policies mainly focus on promoting energy transition and maintaining a balanced approach between short-term economic interests and longer-term benefits associated with mitigating climate change. Based on this assumption, the thesis questions the importance granted by members of the UN climate change regime to the need of setting rules that favor a low-carbon growth model and regulate the pursue of immediate national economic interests. Through a detailed analysis of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Kyoto Protocol and their law-making process, this study first underlines the limited scope of the international tools (such as market mechanisms) specifically designed by member States to promote a low-carbon economy. It also demonstrates that international climate rules ensure to all member States a high level of protection of their national short-term economic interests. Finally, the thesis shows that UN climate cooperation now tends to be characterized by a movement of renationalization of issues related to the promotion of energy transition and the articulation of economic and environmental values.

O tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento surge a partir da década de 70 como expressão de resistência dos países do então Terceiro Mundo a uma ordem mundial pós-guerra entendida essencialmente como injusta e cuja doutrina do desenvolvimento tal como prescrita não conseguia equalizar. A partir de movimentações políticas, os países em desenvolvimento emplacaram tal tratamento no âmbito de importantes documentos internacionais e acordos multilaterais. O tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento se expressa no direito internacional ambiental por meio do princípio das responsabilidades comuns mas diferenciadas e respectivas capacidades, consagrado da Declaração do Rio sobre Meio Ambiente e Desenvolvimento, de 1992, e cuja expressão máxima é a Convenção-Quadro das Nações Unidas sobre Mudanças Climáticas (CQMC). Tendo como objeto o tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento, delimitado às obrigações centrais no âmbito da CQMC, a presente pesquisa encara o problema de sua operacionalização desde a mencionada Convenção até o seu Acordo de Paris. Para tanto, a pesquisa vale-se do método dedutivo, uma abordagem estruturalista e materialista-histórica para a análise de conteúdo dos textos jurídicos, observando a operacionalização do tratamento diferenciado em nas obrigações em termos de vinculatividade, precisão e delegação. O resultado foi que as mudanças climáticas são necessariamente um debate sobre desigualdades em termos de responsabilidade, mitigação e vulnerabilidade. Sob a alegação de um mundo mais complexo, onde a expressão ‘Terceiro Mundo’ é substituída pela noção de ‘Sul Global’, afirma-se que tal enquadramento de uma dívida Norte-Sul não seria mais pertinente, esvaziando o significado do tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento. Porém, a persistência da dívida Norte-Sul em termos dinâmicos aponta que tal tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento também continua atual. No intuito de instrumentalizar as obrigações da Convenção, o Protocolo de Quioto – endossado principalmente pelos países europeus – estabelece uma arquitetura descendente, apoiado em normas diferenciais por meio de compromissos de redução precisos, vinculantes e firmados internacionalmente, tendo como destinatários, em um primeiro momento, os países desenvolvidos. O Acordo de Paris – que reflete a estratégia dos Estados Unidos desde antes da própria Convenção – estabelece uma arquitetura ascendente, recorrendo a normas contextuais, onde os compromissos são nacionalmente determinados e isentos de um escrutínio internacional. O Acordo – cuidadosamente redigido – não estabelece nenhuma obrigação substancial precisa ou mesmo vinculante sobre tais contribuições, deixando ampla margem para todos os países e tornando a liderança dos países desenvolvidos no enfrentamento das mudanças climáticas apenas uma obrigação retórica. Deste modo, conclui-se que, sob o argumento de prover diferenciação para todos, o Acordo de Paris esvazia o significado do tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento. Entretanto, apenas no âmbito da delegação, ou seja, dos mecanismos de cumprimento estabelecidos pelo Acordo, notadamente o balanço geral de implementação por meio de ‘naming and shaming’ que os países em desenvolvimento poderão exigir a necessária liderança dos países desenvolvidos. / In the 1970s, countries recognised as ‘developing’ began to be treated differently with regard to international agreements and doctrines that affected those countries development, following a widespread consensus among developing countries that the post-war order was unjust. As a result of political moves, developing countries have introduced such treatment in the framework of important international documents and multilateral agreements. The differentiated treatment of developing countries is expressed in international environmental law through the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capacities enshrined in the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and culminated in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Having as its object the differentiated treatment of developing countries, limited to the central obligations under the UNFCCC, this research faces how international climate agreements operated within the differentiated treatment for developing countries. The research is based on the deductive method, a structuralist and historical materialist approach to the analysis of the content of legal texts, observing the differential treatment in obligations in terms of obligation, precision and delegation. The result was that climate change is necessarily a debate on inequalities in terms of responsibility, mitigation and vulnerability. Under the claim of a more complex world, where the expression 'Third World' is replaced by the notion of 'Global South', it is stated that such framing of a North-South divide would not be more relevant, depriving the meaning of differential treatment of developing countries. However, the persistence of the North-South divide in dynamic terms points out that such differentiated treatment of the developing countries is still relevant. In order to implement the obligations of the Convention, the Kyoto Protocol - endorsed mainly by European countries - establishes a downward architecture, supported by differential norms through precise, binding and internationally agreed reduction commitments, directed primarily to developed countries. The Paris Agreement - which reflects the US strategy prior to the Convention itself - establishes an upward architecture, using contextual norms where commitments are nationally determined and thus exempt from international scrutiny. The Agreement - carefully worded - does not establish any substantive or precise binding obligation on such contributions, leaving wide scope for all countries and does not require substantive efforts from developed countries in tackling climate change. In this way, it is concluded that, under the argument of providing differentiation for all, the Paris Agreement emptied the meaning of the differential treatment of developing countries. However, only within the scope of the delegation, through compliance mechanisms established by the Agreement, notably the global stocktake through naming and shaming that developing countries may require the necessary leadership of the developed countries.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:26:45Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2009-07-31Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:15:38Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 moreira_hm_me_mar.pdf: 911026 bytes, checksum: 174a0c5e5977679ae4b7eb7f29c2e79f (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / O regime internacional de mudanças climáticas é um dos mais complexos regimes ambientais, por tratar simultaneamente de questões políticas, econômicas, energéticas, de desenvolvimento e ambientais. Tal regime começou a ser formado com a assinatura da Convenção-Quadro das Nações Unidas sobre Mudanças Climáticas, em 1994, e adquiriu importância com a elaboração de diversos documentos para lhe conferir maior eficácia, como o Mandato de Berlim, o Protocolo de Kyoto e os Acordos de Marraqueche. Durante o processo negociador desse regime, várias coalizões de países com interesses diversos se formaram, e dentre estas coalizões, o Grupo dos 77/China. Neste processo, alguns países adquiriram maior proeminência nas negociações, contribuindo de forma substancial para a conformação do regime do clima. Um desses países é o Brasil, um país emergente com características muito particulares e que exerce um papel importante nas negociações ambientais internacionais, e que foi o objeto de análise desta dissertação. A hipótese desta pesquisa é que o Brasil possui certas particularidades, como a maior parte da floresta amazônica e sua matriz energética majoritariamente limpa, e estas ajudaram a definir grande parte da posição assumida pelo país nas negociações do regime internacional de mudanças climáticas. Para provar isso, estudamos e analisamos a posição defendida pelo Brasil nos dois principais tópicos de negociação para os países em desenvolvimento no Protocolo de Kyoto: o Mecanismo de Desenvolvimento Limpo (MDL) e os compromissos de redução das emissões de gases de efeito estufa, durante o período de 1995 a 2004. A metodologia utilizada para testar essa hipótese foi uma revisão bibliográfica de artigos e livros, bem como a análise de documentos oficiais e depoimentos de representantes das delegações brasileiras... / International regime of climate change is one of the most complex environmental regimes because it simultaneously addresses political, economic, energetic, environmental and development issues. This regime was launched with the signature of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 1994. The impact of the international regime of climate change was increased through the elaboration of several documents intended to make the regime more efficient, such as the Berlin Mandate, the Kyoto Protocol and the Marrakech Accords. Throughout the negotiation process (of the regime or the mandate/protocol/accords), many coalitions of countries with different interests were formed, such as the G77/China. Within this coalition, some countries play a prominent role in the negotiations, contributing substantially to the current climate regime configuration. Brazil is one of these countries and, therefore, it is the subject of this dissertation. The hypothesis of this thesis is that certain particular characteristics of the country, especially the Brazilian Amazon rainforest and its renewable energy resources, greatly affect the country’s position on climate change negotiations. In order to prove this hypothesis, we will analyze Brazil’s position regarding two specific topics of the Kyoto Protocol: Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and the greenhouse gases emission reduction commitments to developing countries, during the period from 1995 to 2004. The methodology used to conduct this analysis included the bibliographical review of articles and books, and the study of official documents and reports from the Brazilian delegates present at the aforementioned meetings. Finally, we will analyze the way that Brazil’s particular characteristics influence the country’s position on these main two topics and contributed to the current configuration of the... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)