Thesis (PhD (Mechanical and Mechatronic Engineering))-- University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The dissertation builds on previous research (Pretorius, 2004) and investigates the optimization and control of a large-scale solar chimney power plant. Performance results are based on a reference location near Sishen in South Africa and a so-called reference solar chimney power plant, with a 5000 m collector diameter and a 1000 m high, 210 m diameter chimney. The numerical simulation model is refined and used to perform a sensitivity analysis on the most prominent operating and technical plant specifications. Thermo-economically optimal plant configurations are established from simulation results and calculations according to an approximate plant cost model. The effects of ambient wind, temperature lapse rates and nocturnal temperature inversions on plant performance are examined. Various new technologies are investigated for the purpose of controlling plant output according to specific demand patterns. The incorporation of vegetation under the collector roof of the plant and the influence thereof on plant performance is also explored. Results indicate that, through the modification of the collector roof reflectance, collector roof emissivity, ground surface absorptivity or ground surface emissivity, major improvements on plant performance are possible. Introducing thermal insulation or double glazing of the collector roof also facilitates substantial enhancements on plant yield. Simulations predict a notable sensitivity to the ground surface absorptivity value, while variable atmospheric temperature lapse rates and windy ambient conditions may impair plant performance significantly. Furthermore, sand is found to be unsuitable as plant ground type and thermoeconomically optimal solar chimney plant dimensions are determined to be generally larger than plant dimensions employed in previous studies. Good dynamic control of solar chimney power output is established, suggesting that a solar chimney power plant can be implemented as a base or peak load electricity generating facility. Lastly, results predict that vegetation, when provided with sufficient water, will be able to survive under the collector roof but the inclusion of vegetation will however cause major reductions in plant performance. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die proefskrif bou op vorige navorsing (Pretorius, 2004) en ondersoek die optimering en beheer van 'n grootskaalse sonskoorsteen-kragstasie. Uitsetresultate word baseer op 'n verwysingsligging naby Sishen in Suid-Afrika en 'n sogenaamde verwysingskragstasie, met 'n kollektor deursnee van 5000 m en 'n 1000 m hoë, 210 m deursnee skoorsteen. Die numeriese rekenaarmodel is verbeter en gebruik vir die uitvoering van 'n sensitiwiteits-analise op die belangrikste bedryfs- en tegniese kragstasie spesifikasies. Termo-ekonomiese optimale aanlegkonfigurasies is bepaal volgens die uitsetresultate van die rekenaarmodel en benaderde aanleg-kosteberekeninge volgens 'n eenvoudige kostemodel. Die invloed van wind, atmosferiese temperatuur gradiënte en nagtelike temperatuur inversies op kragstasie uitset word beskou. Verskeie nuwe tegnologië word ondersoek met die doel om aanleg uitset te kan beheer volgens spesifieke elektrisiteit aanvraagspatrone. Die inkorporasie van plantegroei onder die kollektordak, en die invloed daarvan op kragstasie uitset, word ook beskou. Bevindings dui aan dat, deur die wysiging van die kollektordak refleksie, kollektordak emissiwiteit, grondoppervlak absorptiwiteit of grondoppervlak emissiwiteit, groot verbeterings op aanleg uitset moontlik is. Die implementering van termiese isolasie of 'n dubbelglaslaag vir die kollektordak veroorsaak ook 'n beduidende verheffing in kragstasie uitset. Simulasies voorspel 'n merkbare sensitiwiteit teenoor die grondoppervlak absorptiwiteitswaarde, terwyl veranderlike atmosferiese temperatuur daaltempos en winderige omgewingstoestande aanleg uitset beduidend mag belemmer. Verder is bevind dat sand ongeskik is as aanleg grond tipe en dat termo-ekonomiese optimale sonskoorsteen-kragstasie dimensies in die algemeen groter is as die aanvaarde aanlegdimensies van vorige studies. Goeie dinamiese beheer van sonskoorsteen-kragstasie uitset is bevestig, wat suggereer dat die sonskoorsteenkragstasie as 'n basis of pieklas elektrisiteitopwekkings-aanleg ingespan kan word. Ten laaste voorspel resultate dat plantegroei, mits dit voorsien word van genoegsame water, sal kan oorleef onder die kollektordak maar dat die inkorporasie van plantegroei die aanleg uitset beduidend sal benadeel. / Sponsored by the Centre for Renewable and Sustainable Energy Studies

本文主旨在於透過國內消費重新估算臺灣二氧化碳排放量。蓋全球各區域二氧化碳排放量的變動，透過貿易分工而移轉，若只用一國國內生產面估算二氧化碳的排放量，將忽略了各國實際消費的二氧化碳排放量，並使《京都議定書》防止全球暖化的原意大打折扣。因為已開發國家為了達到氣體減量政策的目標，可將二氧化碳排放密集的產業遷移至低度開發國家，溫室氣體的排放只是由締約國轉移到非締約國而已。反之，若以消費面二氧化碳排放量作為二氧化碳減量之依據，則能更有效地提供減量誘因，促進減量技術之發展或誘導節約用能與需求消費。爰此，本文先以透過產業關聯模型調整消費面的臺灣二氧化碳排放量估算值，並以排放減量的觀點分析產業部門之進出口來源國，最後透過多目標規劃模型，進行二氧化碳減量之政策分析，並提出產業發展建議。 / This paper aims at estimating the CO2 emissions of Taiwan from the perspective of domestic consumption side. Since the developed countries would achieve the emission reduction goal by transferring their emission-intensive industries form their lands to the developing countries, we would neglect the true CO2 emissions of nations if we only estimate their CO2 emissions from the perspective of domestic production side, therefore reduce the significance of the Kyoto Protocol, which aims at reducing emissions. On the contrary, If we estimate the CO2 emissions of nations through the consumption side, we can provide the incentives for emission reduction more effectively, prompting the development of the technology of emission reduction or inducing consumers to conserve the use of energy. Consequently, this paper first estimates the CO2 emissions of Taiwan from the perspective of domestic consumption side through an input-output model, then estimates the import and export emissions of industry sectors, finally it analyzes the policies for CO2 emission reduction by a multi-objective programming model and provides suggestions for the development of industries.

在目前相關文獻中，在全球治理架構下所制定的政策，必將對於各國內部相關政策造成影響。然而，這樣的聯想常被視為是理所當然，卻鮮有實證資料，證明一個國家的公共政策在全球治理的架構下，是否真正受到影響？在哪些面向會受到影響？這些面向實際受到影響的程度為何？需要藉由何種工具，來衡量國家政策受到全球治理影響的程度？ 為了解答上述之問題，本文之研究目的可歸納為以下三點： 1.經由全球治理、全球治理與國家公共政策間關係等文獻探討建立全球治理影響國家公共政策之理論架構 2.藉由理論架構與政策德菲法建立全球治理影響國家公共政策之指標系統 3.透過指標系統實證檢驗京都議定書對於台灣公共政策之影響 本研究最後獲致三大重要成果。首先，建構出全球治理影響國家公共政策之「GG-NPP理論架構」；其次，經由政策德菲法的徵詢結果，彙整出適合用以衡量全球治理對於國家公共政策影響之指標系統，共可分為三大面向、六大變數以及十六項指標。再者，透過前述的指標系統，以京都議定書為個案檢證台灣現行因應之政策。透過數據的整理，發現我國在十六項指標項目中，有十項是呈現因應京都議定書的正向趨勢；但是其餘六項指標，由於受到如主權、國際現實環境等外在因素的侷限，或者是受制於政府自己內部的組織、人事、預算、府際關係等因素，故而全球治理並未對於國家公共政策的結果必然造成影響。 / In some relative literature, we can see the policy outcomes in the national governance level “could” be affected by those in the global level. But there is little practical evidence to affirm such cause and effect. How can we evaluate exactly such relation, dimension and degree? This paper will be grouped into third parts. First, I will review the literature of global governance, the relations between global governance and public policy. By doing so, the theory framework could be formulated. Second, I will select and construct the dimensions, variables and indicators that are related to the relations between global governance and public policy. And I will check and confirm the dimensions and indicators through the “Policy Delphi” method to build the indicator system completely. Third, I will evaluate the impacts of Kyoto Protocol on public policy in Taiwan. Finally, I got three important outcomes. First, I formed a “GG-NPP theory framework”. Second, I constructed an indicator system that can be formed to measure the relation between global governance and public policy by two round “Policy Delphi” process. There are three dimensions, six variables and sixteen indicators in this indicator system. Third, I examine the indicator system by the case of “Kyoto Protocol”. I checked the impacts of Kyoto Protocol on public policy in Taiwan and found some interesting outcomes. And I knew the impacts of Kyoto Protocol on public policy will be affected by some external and internal elements.

Com base na Nova Economia Institucional, o foco desta pesquisa foi o de identificar os custos de transação existentes nos projetos de MDL (Mecanismo de Desenvolvimento Limpo) e investigar se eles são barreiras para o desenvolvimento do projeto, e se podem afetar a eficiência de projetos já implantados. Mais especificamente, foram analisadas as variáveis que afetam as diferenças entre as reduções de emissões estimadas nos projetos de MDL e as reduções realmente verificadas (Sucesso de Redução - SR), depois do projeto implantado e monitorado. A fim de cumprir esse objetivo, esta pesquisa contou com levantamento de dados secundários relativos aos projetos de MDL realizados em todo o mundo, e dados primários relativos aos projetos brasileiros de MDL. A análise das informações mostrou que os países mais relevantes em número de projetos são Índia, China, Brasil, mas este ranking se altera dependendo da variável analisada (por exemplo, volume de emissão reduzida ou estimada). Os setores mais relevantes em volume de redução são de HFC, N2O, mas este perfil se altera quando analisado o número de projetos, ficando em primeiro lugar biomassa, hidroelétrica e energia eólica. Em relação ao SR, a maior parte dos projetos não apresenta eficiência satisfatória. No entanto, em volume de reduções a maior parte dos projetos cumpre mais que 91% de SR. Os setores mundiais mais eficientes são N2O e HFC (Brasil N2O e troca de energia fóssil), e os setores de resíduos sólidos e agricultura (Brasil, agricultura e resíduos sólidos) são os menos eficientes. Finalmente, esta pesquisa conclui que custos de transação afetam o sucesso da redução de MDL, e os mais importantes são os custos ex-ante, resultantes de problemas de falhas de informação (como, por exemplo, problemas com as organizações que intermedeiam o processo dos MDLs) e problemas de mensuração (problemas relacionados com metodologias dos MDLs). / Based on the New Institutional Economics, the focus of this research was to identify transaction costs in CDM projects (Clean Development Mechanism) and investigate if they can affect project efficiency, and also if they create project development barriers. More specifically, this research analyzed the variables that could affect the differences between CDM estimated emission reduction projects and actual reductions obtained (Reduction Success - RS) after the project has been implemented and monitored. To fulfill this goal, this research included a secondary global CDM projects data survey, and primary data survey related to Brazilian CDM projects. Data analysis showed that the most important countries in terms of number of projects are India, China, Brazil, but depending on the variable analyzed (for instance, emission reduction volume) this ranking could change. The most relevant sectors in emission reduction volume were HFCs, N2O, but this would change when we analyze number of projects, where biomass would come first, followed by hydroelectric and wind energy. When considering RS, most projects do not show satisfactory performance. However, in terms of emission reductions amount, most of the projects achieve more than 91% RS. The most efficient sectors in the world are HFC and N2O (in Brazil, N2O and fossil fuel), and the least efficient sectors are solid waste and agriculture (in Brazil, agriculture and solid waste). Finally, this research concludes that transaction costs affect the success of CDM reductions, and the most relevant are ex-ante costs, resulting from information problem gaps (these problems relate to parties involved in the CDM process) and measurement problems (CDM methodologies).

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-26T20:48:35Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 SaraGodoy.pdf: 5804152 bytes, checksum: baeceffd1a1f8912ffc807d85cb63398 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2005-10-18 / The purpose of this work is to present the limits and benefits of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Projects implementation. The supplemental objectives are the limits and potentialities evaluation of the Kyoto Protocol and the Tools for the Demonstration and Assessment of Additionality analysis, that is an tool proposed by CDM Executive Committee enabling the companies who propose the CDM projects to prove the additionality of its projects. The Protocol firmed in 1997 during COP 3 (3rd Conference of Parts) of United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), in Kyoto, determined emissions ceiling for some developed countries, considering an institucional apparatus to provide support to the process implementation. In order to make flexible the goals fullfilment, the Protocol creates mechanisms (the Mechanism of Clean Development, the Joint Implementation and the Emissions Trade) that also allow the fullfilment of the reduction objectives. The countries can reach its reduction goals, purchasing emission reduction from other countries. Therefore, these tools enable and improve the carbon market. As relevant part of this work, the CDM appears as a great tool that if well used, can bring benefits for development countries, bringing up economic and enviromental advantages once these projects are implemented in its territories, promoting the sustainable development. There are still plenty of challenges ahead for the CDM and the Protocol development, as reduce the uncertainties of regulatory framework, minors transaction costs and institutional improvements that can be reached. Related to the Tools for the Demonstration and Assessment of Additionality, it fullfils with its function to demonstrate adittionnality, not limiting or promoting new CDM projects / O trabalho objetiva apresentar os limites e benefícios da implantação do Mecanismo de Desenvolvimento Limpo (MDL). Os objetivos subsidiários ao principal são a avaliação mais ampla dos limites e potencialidades do Protocolo de Kyoto e a análise mais específica do Teste de Adicionalidade, que é um instrumento proposto pelo Comitê Executivo do MDL com o intuito de que os proponentes de projetos de MDL possam comprovar se seus projetos são adicionais. O Protocolo firmado em 1997 durante a COP 3 (3º Conferência das Partes) da Convenção-Quadro das Nações Unidas sobre Mudanças do Clima (CQNUMC), em Kyoto, determinou um teto de emissões para vários países desenvolvidos e propôs um aparato institucional para dar sustentação à implantação desse processo. Buscando uma maior flexibilidade no cumprimento das metas, o Protocolo cria mecanismos de flexibilização (o MDL, a Implementação Conjunta e o Comércio de Emissões) que procuram assegurar o cumprimento dos objetivos de redução. Os países podem alcançar suas metas de redução por intermédio de compras de reduções de emissão de outros países. A criação dessas ferramentas possibilita, portanto, o surgimento de um mercado de certificados de carbono. Como parte relevante desse trabalho, o MDL aparece como uma grande ferramenta, que se bem utilizada, pode ser muito benéfica aos países em desenvolvimento, pois pode trazer vantagens econômicas e ambientais com a implantação dos projetos em seus territórios, promovendo assim o desenvolvimento sustentável. Há vários obstáculos a serem transpostos para o maior desenvolvimento do MDL e do Protocolo, como maior regulação, menores custos de transação e melhorias institucionais que podem ser obtidas. Quanto ao Teste de Adicionalidade ele cumpre com sua função de demonstrativo de adicionalidade, não sendo nem limitador nem promotor de novos projetos.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-26T20:48:58Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Rodolfo Vidal da Cunha.pdf: 608722 bytes, checksum: de9b47caa8d5c82a36ee8da7e86ad5ec (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-11-24 / Global economic growth has promoted a broad global climate change that could jeopardize the very life as we know on the planet. Thus, it became imperative to implement policies that would help in containing the environmental devastation and climate change. For that created the Carbon Market in the Kyoto Protocol, which was ratified by most nations of the world. This market has size, range and networking with various other sectors, thanks to state policies, especially within the European Union. The global financial crisis hatched in the biennium 2007/2008, born from the rise in defaults of mortgages, high-risk sub-prime, the United States, was transmitted to the main economic sectors and across borders around the planet, leaving a scenario of high volatility and impacting economic activity. The crisis also has had consequences in the global carbon market, externalized by the strong contraction in the prices of emission allowances of CO2 equivalent. The objective of this work is a mapping of the main channels of international financial crisis of the period for the carbon market. This study also sought to analyze the form gave way to the insertion of the European Economic Community in this market, since it is responsible for the Carbon Market have created inter-relations with the major economic sectors, and concentrate more than 70% of the volume negotiated. For this, we performed a bibliographical research, offering a panoramic view and a systematization of this phenomenon / O crescimento econômico mundial promoveu uma ampla mudança climática global que pode comprometer a própria vida como a conhecemos no planeta. Deste modo, tornou-se imperativo a implementação de políticas que auxiliassem na contenção da devastação ambiental e climática. Para isso foi criado o Mercado de Carbono no Protocolo de Quioto, que foi ratificado pela maioria das nações do mundo. Este mercado ganhou tamanho, amplitude e interligação com diversos outros setores, graças a políticas estatais, principalmente no âmbito da União Européia. A crise financeira global eclodida no biênio 2007/2008, nascida a partir da elevação da inadimplência dos créditos hipotecários de alto risco, sub-prime, nos Estados Unidos, se espalhou para os principais segmentos econômicos e atravessou fronteiras ao redor do planeta, deixando um cenário de alta volatilidade e impactando a atividade econômica. Tal crise também deixou seqüelas no Mercado de Carbono global, exteriorizadas pela forte contração nos preços das permissões de emissões de CO2 equivalente. O objetivo deste trabalho é realizar um mapeamento dos principais canais de transmissão da crise financeira internacional do período para o mercado de carbono. Este trabalho também buscou analisar a forma como se deu a inserção da Comunidade Econômica Européia neste mercado, dado que ela é a responsável pelo Mercado de Carbono ter criado inter-relações com os principais segmentos econômicos, além de concentrar mais de 70% do volume negociado. Para isso, foi realizada uma pesquisa bibliográfica exploratória, oferecendo uma visão panorâmica e uma sistematização deste fenômeno

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To remain competitive in an environment with limited natural resources and ever-increasing operational costs, energy efficiency cannot be ignored. From this perspective the need for Energy Service Companies (ESCos) has arisen to address the supply constraint of national utilities and emission reductions faced by governments, to mitigate climate change. This has led to the development of two energy-efficiency finance business applications in South Africa, namely Demand-Side Management (DSM) under Eskom and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocol. The technologies developed by ESCos, primarily for DSM energy efficiency projects, can be directly applied to generate Certified Emission Reduction (CERs) units, or carbon credits under the CDM business model. ESCo executives now need to decide which option will be more profitable; a once-off Rand/MW value from Eskom-DSM or an annual return on investment (ROI) from selling CERs over an extended crediting period. With a volatile CER price and bureaucratic registration procedures, it is very important that managers have all the right information at hand before making such decisions. A unique energy-efficiency investment decision model is developed that incorporates cost benefit analysis, based on the ESCos chosen risk profile. All attributes to the model of both DSM and CDM are defined, discussed and quantified into a decision analysis framework that would minimize risk and maximize profit. These attributes include life cycle analysis, technology transfer, cash flow, future CER prices, and associated project and political risks. The literature and background information that builds up to the development of this decision model serves as a complete handbook with guidelines to the South African energy services industry and investors. This study proposes a new energy-efficiency methodology under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that would increase the amount of CDM energy efficiency projects in South Africa and internationally. The methodology is designed to improve control system efficiency of any large electricity consumer instead of being equipment-specific. This implies that developers can use the same methodology regardless of whether the end-users are clear water pumping systems, compressed air systems, fans etc. This will reduce the cost of registering new methodologies with the UNFCCC and make CDM a more lucrative option to ESCos and other developers. This new energy-efficiency methodology and finance decision model was used in a case study to test its validity and accuracy. Two supporting technologies, REMS-CARBON and OSIMS, were developed in conjunction with HVAC International and tested at the clear water pumping system of Kopanang gold mine. The results from the case study demonstrated that this model is an acceptable tool in ensuring that ESCos gain maximum benefit from energy efficiency finance initiatives. Due to the experience gained with the modalities, procedures and pitfalls of DSM and CDM, further suggestions are made for new protocols to follow the Kyoto Protocol post-2012. South Africa and specifically ESCos could be very well positioned in a global “cap-andtrade” future carbon market. / PhD (Mechanical Engineering), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009

To remain competitive in an environment with limited natural resources and ever-increasing operational costs, energy efficiency cannot be ignored. From this perspective the need for Energy Service Companies (ESCos) has arisen to address the supply constraint of national utilities and emission reductions faced by governments, to mitigate climate change. This has led to the development of two energy-efficiency finance business applications in South Africa, namely Demand-Side Management (DSM) under Eskom and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocol. The technologies developed by ESCos, primarily for DSM energy efficiency projects, can be directly applied to generate Certified Emission Reduction (CERs) units, or carbon credits under the CDM business model. ESCo executives now need to decide which option will be more profitable; a once-off Rand/MW value from Eskom-DSM or an annual return on investment (ROI) from selling CERs over an extended crediting period. With a volatile CER price and bureaucratic registration procedures, it is very important that managers have all the right information at hand before making such decisions. A unique energy-efficiency investment decision model is developed that incorporates cost benefit analysis, based on the ESCos chosen risk profile. All attributes to the model of both DSM and CDM are defined, discussed and quantified into a decision analysis framework that would minimize risk and maximize profit. These attributes include life cycle analysis, technology transfer, cash flow, future CER prices, and associated project and political risks. The literature and background information that builds up to the development of this decision model serves as a complete handbook with guidelines to the South African energy services industry and investors. This study proposes a new energy-efficiency methodology under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that would increase the amount of CDM energy efficiency projects in South Africa and internationally. The methodology is designed to improve control system efficiency of any large electricity consumer instead of being equipment-specific. This implies that developers can use the same methodology regardless of whether the end-users are clear water pumping systems, compressed air systems, fans etc. This will reduce the cost of registering new methodologies with the UNFCCC and make CDM a more lucrative option to ESCos and other developers. This new energy-efficiency methodology and finance decision model was used in a case study to test its validity and accuracy. Two supporting technologies, REMS-CARBON and OSIMS, were developed in conjunction with HVAC International and tested at the clear water pumping system of Kopanang gold mine. The results from the case study demonstrated that this model is an acceptable tool in ensuring that ESCos gain maximum benefit from energy efficiency finance initiatives. Due to the experience gained with the modalities, procedures and pitfalls of DSM and CDM, further suggestions are made for new protocols to follow the Kyoto Protocol post-2012. South Africa and specifically ESCos could be very well positioned in a global “cap-andtrade” future carbon market. / PhD (Mechanical Engineering), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2009