L'objectif de cette thèse est d'évaluer les performances d'une méthode d'imagerie optique non-invasive pour la détection de précancers et cancers précoces de la vessie, à l'aide d'une analyse de lumière laser rétro-diffusée. L'analyse de la distribution spatiale de la lumière à la surface de fantômes multi-couches imitant l'épithelium de vessie avec différentes propriétés d'absorption et de diffusion nous a permis de montrer les modifications de ces propriétés optiques entraînent des changements de la taille de la surface du spot de lumière rétro-diffusée, mesurables par une caméra vidéo. La méthode développée est également sensible à l'accumulation d'un photosensibilisateur et est applicable aussi bien pour des études en réflectance diffuse qu'en fluorescence induite. Les paramètres optiques des fantômes synthétiques tri-couches imitant différents états des épithéliums de vessie ont été calculés à partir de la théorie des ondes électromagnétiques appliquée aux diffuseurs sphériques sans et avec une couche. Ces paramètres ont servi comme entrées aux simulations de Monte Carlo qui ont permis d'obtenir les matrices des distributions d'intensité de réflectance diffuse. Notre étude démontre que les mesures en imagerie de réflectance diffuse non-polarisée permettent de fournir des informations utiles au diagnostic tissulaire / The present thesis aimed to evaluate the performance of non-invasive optical method for bladder pre- and early- cancer detection by means of diffuse-reflected laser light analysis. The analysis of light distribution at the surface of multi-layered bladder phantoms with different scattering and absorption properties showed that the changes in the optical properties lead to increase or decrease of the diffuse-reflected light spot area, detectable by a video camera. It was also determined, that the presented method is capable of detection of the photosensitizer accumulation, and can be applied for both (diffuse-reflected laser and fluorescence) studies simultaneously. The calculations for spherical and ?coated?-spherical tissue scatterers, based on the electromagnetic wave theory, allowed for obtaining optical parameters of three-layered biological phantoms and of bladder tissues at different states. These parameters served as inputs for Monte Carlo simulations, which provided us with matrices of diffuse-reflected light distributions. The study showed that the measurements of non-polarized back-scattered laser light can provide useful information on the tissue state

Die Lungen werden von einem oberflächenaktiven Gemisch, dem Surfactant ausgekleidet, das für die Regulation der Oberflächenspannung der Alveolen und die Immunabwehr der Lunge von Bedeutung ist. Bestandteile des Surfactants sind zu 90% Lipide und zu 10% vier durchalphabetisierte Surfactantproteine A bis D, von denen SP-A das mengenmäßig häufigste darstellt. Die Funktionen dieses Proteins liegen vermutlich in der Surfactanthomöostase und dabei im Phospholipid-Turnover der Hauptkomponente des Surfactants Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholin (DPPC) und als Collektin in der Immunabwehr. In vitro ist die SP-A induzierte, calciumabhängige Liposomenaggregation eine charakteristische Eigenschaft des Proteins. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Wechselwirkung von SP-A mit Phospholipidliposomen mit der Resonant Mirror Spektroskopie und der Nah-Infrarot-Lichtstreuung untersucht. Durch den vergleichenden Einsatz der kinetischen Methoden ist es möglich, die Bindung von SP-A an Liposomen von der Aggregationsreaktion zu unterscheiden. Es konnte erstmals gezeigt werden, daß beide Reaktionen von mikromolaren Calciumkonzentrationen abhängig sind, die halbmaximale Reaktion erfolgt bei freien Calciumkonzentrationen < 20 µM. Die Ca2+-induzierte Interaktion zwischen SP-A und Liposomen zeigt eine hohe Kooperativität und ist durch Zugabe von Calciumchelatoren reversibel. Die Dissoziation der Liposomenbindung erfolgt schneller als der Zerfall der Aggregate (0,3 s vs. 30 s). Es sind zwei Konformationen des SP-A zu unterscheiden, eine lipidbindende Form in Gegenwart von Calcium und eine nichtbindende Form. Neben Calcium können auch mikromolare Strontium- und Bariumkonzentrationen die Konformationsänderung induzieren, Magnesium hingegen nicht. Die Liposomenbindung und nachfolgende Aggregation erfolgt bei SP-A von Rind, Ratte und Schaf in gleicher Weise in Abhängigkeit von mikromolaren Calciumkonzentrationen. Die Bindungseigenschaften des SP-A zeigen eine Abhängigkeit von der Art des verwendeten Phospholipids. Dabei zeigt sich eine "Affinität", im Sinne einer verstärkten Wechselwirkung mit DPPC, aber die postulierte Spezifität wurde in der kinetischen Analyse nicht bestätigt. SP-A interagiert bevorzugt mit Phospholipiden, die langkettige, gesättigte Fettsäureseitenketten besitzen (DPPC, Distearoylphosphatidylcholin), sowie mit Phosphatidylcholin und ähnlichen Kopfgruppen (Sphingomyelin, Phosphatidylinositol). Da neben den Kopfgruppen auch die Seitenketten bei der Erkennung durch das Protein bedeutsam sind, liegt nahe, daß die Packungsdichte der Lipidmoleküle in den Liposomen für die Interaktion wichtig ist. Die Ergebnisse werden als reversible, sequentielle Reaktionsfolge interpretiert: Diese ist ein Modell für die mögliche Wirkung von SP-A bei der Surfactanthomöostase, indem das Protein als Lipidtransporter zwischen alveolärer Hypophase und Typ-II-Pneumozyten funktioniert und erklärt, wie SP-A und Liposomen gemeinsam in die Zelle aufgenommen und auf unterschiedlichen Wegen wieder ausgeschleust werden könnten. / Surfactant protein A (SP-A) is crucial for lung function, including tubular myelin formation and lipid uptake by type II pneumocytes. Known properties of SP-A in vitro are ist Ca2+ dependent interaction with phospholipids and ist role in the aggregation of liposomes. To dissect and to analyze these processes, the SP-A was immobilized and liposome binding was measured by resonant mirror technique. Liposome aggregation was followed seperately by kinetic light scattering in suspensions. It was found that SP-A mediated binding and aggregation of liposomes depend on micromolar calcium concentrations in the range of < 20 µM, independent of the species (sheep, rat or cow) and of the phospholipid composition tested. The interaction between SP-A and liposomes shows cooperativity and reversibility. Liposomes dissociate from SP-A in < 0.3 s whereas disaggregation takes approx. 30 s. The interpretation of the results leads to a rapid and reversible reaction of three reactions: a cooperative Ca2+ dependent conformational change in SP-A, binding of Ca2+-bound SP-A to liposomes, and aggregation of the Ca2+/SP-A - bound liposomes. With palmitoyloleoylphosphatidylcholine (POPC), the complex formation proceeds two fold slower compared to DPPC, leading to a lower final equilibrium level of SP-A/lipid interaction. Regarding the phospholipid headgroups, phosphatidylinositol (PI) and sphingomyelin (SM) interact comparable to PC, whole less interaction is seen with phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) or phosphatidylserine (PS) or with phosphatidylglycerol (PG). Thus, both headgroup and fatty acid composition determine SP-A/phospholipid interaction. However, the protein has no high specificity, neither for the polar nor for the apolar moiety of phospholipids.

A proteína P21 do Trypanosoma cruzi participa no processo de infecção da célula hospedeira, desse modo é de grande importância: elucidar as vias de sinalização induzidas pela proteína, bem como caracterizar a nível molecular e estrutural a P21. O que vai auxiliar no entendimento da função biológica da P21 e sua participação no processo de infecção. A P21 recombinante é expressa Escherichia coli em sua maioria na fração insolúvel. Visando aumento de proteína na fração solúvel, foi realizada a clonagem do gene da P21 em vetor pSMT3, bem como testes de expressão subsequentes em diferentes cepas de expressão de E. coli, em vetor pET-28 e pSMT3 e variadas condições de expressão e lise celular. Desse modo obtiveram-se as condições que permitissem uma maior concentração da P21 na fração solúvel. A expressão foi realizada no vetor pET-28, cepa BL21, a 37&deg;C com meio 2xYT a 0.5 mM de IPTG, utilizando a técnica de sonicação como lise. A P21 foi purificada em cromatografia de afinidade e posteriormente em coluna de exclusão molecular. Foram realizados estudos de modelagem por homologia levaram a elaborar a hipótese de que a P21 tem a função de inibidor de serinoprotease do tipo kunitz. Posteriormente essa hipótese foi confirmada com ensaios de avaliação da atividade inibitória da P21 frente à tripsina, quimiotripsina e elastase neutrofílica, o qual a P21 mostrou capaz de inibir a elastase neutrofílica. Estudos com espalhamento dinâmico da luz (DLS) revelaram que as amostras testadas de P21 contém diferentes concentrações de agregados de alto peso molecular em todos os pHs avaliados. Outras medidas foram realizadas para avaliar o estado de agregação da P21 de acordo com a temperatura e verificou-se que entre 32-52 &deg;C, a proteína apresenta menor raio hidrodinâmico, indicando menor agregação nesse intervalo. Estudos de dicroísmo circular revelaram que a P21 apresenta por volta de 20% de &alpha; hélice, 32% de folha-&beta;, 22% de volta e 23 % estrutura randômica. De acordo com a curva de desnaturação referente ao espectro de CD obtido, a P21 se mostra desnaturada a partir de 64&deg;C. / The Trypanosoma cruzi protein P21 participates in the host cell infection process, but its specific function is poorly described. Thus it is important to elucidate the signaling pathways induced by the protein and characterize the P21 at the structural and molecular levels, as a contribution towards the understanding of the P21 biological function and its role in the infection process. The Escherichia coli recombinant P21 is expressed mostly in the insoluble fraction. Aiming to increase protein in the soluble fraction, we performed the cloning of the P21 gene in pSMT3 vector and subsequent expression tests in different expression strains of E. coli in pET-28 and pSMT3 vectors and varied expression conditions and cell lysis. Thus we obtained conditions that allow a greater concentration of the P21 in the soluble fraction. The expression vector was performed using vector pET-28, in Bl21 strain at 37&deg;C in 2xYT culture medium with 0.5 mM IPTG, using the sonication technique in cell lysis. The recombinant P21 was purified by Ni affinity chromatography and subsequently a molecular exclusion column. We performed homology modeling studies which led to assume that P21 can be a serinprotease inhibitor of Kunitz type. Furthermore, this hypothesis was confirmed in the experiments testing the P21 inhibitory activity against the trypsin, chymotrypsin and elastase. We found the P21 exclusively inhibit neutrophil elastase. Studies using dynamic light scattering (DLS) revealed that the samples containing P21 contained large molecular weigth aggregates in different concentrations at all evaluated pHs. Others measurements were performed to assess the P21 aggregation state according to the temperature and we found that between 32-52 &deg;C the protein had a smaller hydrodynamic radius, indicating less aggregation in this range. Circular dichroism (CD) studies revealed that P21 has about 20% &alpha;-helix, 32% &beta;, -sheet, 22% turn and 23% of random structure. According to the denaturation curve for the CD spectrum obtained, the P21 was denatured from 64&deg;C.

Lorsqu'une tumeur grossit, elle exerce une pression sur les tissus environnants et est comprimée en retour. Des expériences sur un modèle de tumeur in vitro, appelé sphéroïde, ont montré que cette pression influence largement le devenir du tissu cancéreux, notamment en freinant sa croissance, mais aussi en le rendant plus invasif. Pour mieux comprendre ce dernier effet, nous avons cherché à étudier le comportement migratoire des cellules à l'intérieur d'un sphéroïde sous pression. Observer l'intérieur d'un sphéroïde pose cependant un problème technique car les méthodes usuelles d'imagerie ne sont pas utilisables dans des tissus épais (> 100 μm). L'imagerie classique étant limitée en profondeur à cause de la diffusion de la lumière, nous nous sommes tournés vers une méthode qui utilise justement celle-ci : la diffusion dynamique de lumière ou DLS (Dynamic Light Scattering). Nous avons développé son application à la migration cellulaire, afin d'obtenir la distribution des déplacements relatifs des cellules au cours du temps. Cette mesure est faite sans utiliser de marqueurs spécifiques et est applicable à des sphéroïdes allant jusqu'à 400 μm de diamètre. Nous avons ainsi mis en évidence une organisation radiale du sphéroïde en termes de mobilité, avec des cellules rapides en surface et plus lentes au centre. Nous avons aussi montré qu'en appliquant une contrainte au sphéroïde, la vitesse moyenne diminue jusqu'à être réduite de moitié pour des pressions supérieures à 15kPa. Une autre équipe a mesuré par ailleurs une augmentation de la vitesse des cellules en surface suite à une compression, ce qui indique que l'organisation radiale se retrouve dans la réponse à la pression. Nous avons montré que cette sensibilité à la pression est une propriété qui émerge de l'organisation 3D du tissu, dans laquelle la matrice extracellulaire joue un rôle primordial. Enfin, pour explorer les possibilités qu'offre notre technique, nous l'avons appliquée à une autre question : comment la migration des macrophages est-elle affectée par les signaux provenant de cellules apoptotiques ? Les résultats ont montré que les cellules apoptotiques précoces augmentent la vitesse des macrophages tandis que les cellules apoptotiques tardives la réduisent. D'un cas à l'autre, la longueur de persistance du mouvement est conservée. / As a tumor grows, it exerts a mechanical pressure on its surrounding tissue and is compressed back as a reaction. Recent experiments on an in vitro tumor model, called spheroid, have shown that this pressure is crucial for the fate of the cancerous tissue. In particular, the pressure slows down its growth, but makes it more invasive. To further understand the latter effect, we decided to study the migration of cells inside spheroids under pressure. However, imaging the inside of a spheroid is technically challenging as usual microscopy methods do not work on thick tissues (> 100 μm). Standard imaging methods are limited in terms of depth penetration because of light scattering. For this reason, we decided to take advantage of this scattered light with a method called Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS). We developed its application to cell migration in order to measure the distribution of cells displacements over time. The measurement is label-free and works with spheroids as thick as 400 μm in diameter. By this means, we revealed a radial organization inside the spheroid in terms of mobility, with fast cells at the surface and slower cells in the core. We also showed that applying a pressure onto spheroids decreases the average cell speed by a factor up to two for pressure greater than 15 kPa. Another team reported an increase in the speed of cells located at the surface of a compressed spheroid, which implies that the radial organization is also true for the impact of pressure. We demonstrated that this sensitivity to an external pressure is a 3D emergent property, in which the extracellular matrix plays an essential role. Finally, we explored the potential of our technique by addressing another question: how do apoptotic cells signals affect the migration of macrophages? We found that early apoptotic cells increase the speed of macrophages whereas late apoptotic cells decrease it. In both cases, the persistence length of the motion is the same.

Este estudo reúne os principais resultados de fluorescência estática e resolvida no tempo sobre a interação da porfirina meso-tetrakis (4-metilpiridil), na forma de base livre (TMPyP) e complexada com Zn2+ (ZnTMPyP), com vesículas de fosfolipídio. Adicionalmente foram utilizadas as técnicas de potencial zeta e espalhamento de luz dinâmico (DLS, do inglês \"dynamic light scattering\"). As vesículas de fosfolipídio foram formadas por dois conjuntos de fosfolipídios: saturados e insaturados. O primeiro grupo é formado pela mistura dos fosfolipídios zwiteriônico 1,2-dipalmitoil-sn-glicero-3-fosfocolina (DPPC) e aniônico 1,2-dipalmitoil-sn-3-glicero-[fosfo-rac-(1- glicerol)] (DPPG), a diferentes razões molares. Os estudos utilizando tais sistemas foram realizados abaixo (25oC) e acima (50oC) da temperatura de transição de fase gel-líquido cristalino destes fosfolipídios (~ 41oC). O segundo grupo é formado pela mistura dos fosfolipídios zwiteriônico 1-palmitoil-2-oleoil-sn-glicero-3-fosfocolina (POPC) e aniônico 1-palmitoil-2-oleoil-sn-glicero-3-fosfo(1-rac-glicerol) (POPG). Como a transição de fase destes dois fosfolipídios ocorre a temperaturas negativas, todos os experimentos foram realizados a 25oC (vesículas no estado líquido cristalino). Todos os sistemas foram preparados através do método de extrusão para a obtenção de vesículas grandes unilamelares (LUV, do inglês \"large unilamellar vesicles\"). As análises dos dados de fluorescência indicaram que a atração eletrostática entre os substituíntes (positivamente carregados) das porfirinas TMPyP e ZnTMPyP e o grupo das cabeças polares (camada de Stern) das vesículas de fosfolipídio desempenha um papel fundamental na associação da porfirina. A distribuição da TMPyP entre o meio aquoso (tampão) e as vesículas de fosfolipídio foi evidenciada pela coexistência de um tempo de vida de fluorescência mais curto (~ 5 ns) e outro mais longo (~ 9-11 ns), respectivamente. Baseado nos valores das constantes pré-exponenciais, estudos adicionais mostram que a distribuição acima é afetada pela concentração de sal na solução. Os resultados de supressão de fluorescência com o supressor iodeto de potássio (KI) indicaram que ambas porfirinas estão localizadas, preferencialmente, na região da camada de Stern. Este resultado foi confirmado pelos estudos de potencial zeta e de DLS, os quais mostraram uma neutralização parcial das cargas negativas na superfície das vesículas devido à associação da porfirina. / This study presents time-resolved and steady-state fluorescence results on the interaction of the meso-tetrakis (4-methylpyridil) porphyrin, in free base form (TMPyP), and complexed with Zn2+ (ZnTMPyP), with phospholipid vesicles. Zeta potential and dynamic light scattering (DLS) techniques were also used. Phospholipid vesicles were formed by two phospholipid systems: saturated and unsaturated. The first group is a mixture of zwiterionic dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocoline (DPPC) and anionic 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-3-glycero-[phospho-rac-(1-glycerol)] (DPPG) phospholipids, at different molar ratios. Measurements were performed bellow (25oC) and above (50oC) the main gel-liquid crystalline phase transition temperature (~ 41oC). The second group is constituted by a mixture of zwiterionic 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocoline (POPC) and anionic 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho(1-rac-glycerol) (POPG) phospholipids, at different molar ratios. Since the gel-liquid crystalline phase transition of these phospholipids occurs at a very low temperature value, all experiments were performed at 25oC (liquid crystalline state vesicles). All phospholipid systems were prepared through the extrusion method in order to obtain large unilamellar vesicles (LUV). The fluorescence data analyses indicated that the electrostatic attraction between the porphyrin substituents (positively charged) and the polar head groups of the phospholipid vesicles (Stern layer) plays an important role on the porphyrin binding affinity. The distribution of TMPyP between the aqueous medium (buffer) and the phospholipid vesicles was characterized by the coexistence of a shorter (~ 5 ns) and a longer (~ 9-11 ns) fluorescence lifetimes, respectively. Based on the pre- exponential values, additional time-resolved experiments showed a redistribution of the porphyrin at increasing salt concentration. The quenching studies, using potassium iodide (KI) as quencher, indicated that both TMPyP and ZnTMPyP are preferentially located at the Stern layer region. This result is in agreement with the zeta potential and DLS findings, which demonstrated a partial neutralization of the negative charges at the vesicle surface due to the porphyrin association.

O desenvolvimento de algoritmos computacionais para a obtenção de distribuições de tamanho de partícula em dispersões e que utilizam dados espectroscópicos em tempo real e in-line a partir de sensores permitirá uma variedade de aplicações, como o monitoramento de propriedades em fluidos de corte industriais, acompanhamento de processos de polimerização, tratamento de efluentes e sensoriamento atmosférico. O presente estudo tem como objetivo a implementação e comparação de técnicas para resolução de problemas de inversão, desenvolvendo algoritmos que forneçam distribuição de tamanho de partículas em dispersões a partir de dados de espectroscopia UV-Vis-Nir (Ultravioleta, Visível e Infravermelho próximo). Foram implementadas quatro técnicas, sendo uma delas um método alternativo sem a presença de etapas de inversão. Os métodos que utilizaram alguma técnica de inversão evidenciaram a dificuldade em se obter distribuições de tamanho de gotas (DTG) de boa qualidade, enquanto o método alternativo foi aquele que se mostrou mais eficiente e confiável. Este estudo é parte de um programa cooperativo entre a Universidade de São Paulo e a Universidade de Bremen chamado programa BRAGECRIM (Brazilian German Cooperative Research Initiative in Manufacturing) e é financiado pela FAPESP, CAPES, FINEP e CNPq (Brasil) e DFG (Alemanha). / The development of computer algorithms to obtain the particle size distributions in dispersions using spectroscopic data in real time and in-line from sensors enable a variety of applications such as monitoring properties in industrial cutting fluids, monitoring of polymerization processes, wastewater, atmospheric sensing and other applications. The aim of this study is to implement techniques for inversion problem solving, by testing algorithms that provide particle size distribution in dispersions from UV-Vis-Nir (Ultraviolet, Visible and Near-Infrared) spectroscopic data. Four techniques have been implemented, one of them being an alternative method without the inversion step. The methods using inversion techniques showed difficulties to obtain droplet size distributions (DSD) with good quality, while the alternative method was the one that was more efficient and reliable. This study is part of a cooperative program between the University of São Paulo and the University of Bremen, within the BRAGECRIM program (Brazilian German Cooperative Research Initiative in Manufacturing) and is financially supported by FAPESP, CAPES, FINEP and CNPq (Brazil) and DFG (Germany).

Small devices capable of self-propulsion have potential application in areas of nanoscience where autonomous locomotion and programmability are needed. The specific base-pairing interactions that arise from DNA hybridisation permit the programmed assembly of matter and also the creation of controllable dynamical systems. The aim of this thesis is to use the tools of DNA nanotechnology to design synthetic active matter at the micro and nano scales. In the first section, DNA was used as an active medium capable of transporting information faster than diffusion in the form of chemical waves. DNA waves were generated experimentally using a DNA autocatalytic reaction in a microfluidic channel. The propagation velocity of DNA chemical waves was slowed down by creating concentration gradients that changed the reaction kinetics in space. The second section details the synthesis of chemically-propelled particles and the use of DNA as a 'programmable glue' to mediate their interactions. Janus micromotors were fabricated by physical vapour deposition and a wet-chemical approach was demonstrated to synthesise asymmetrical catalytic Pt-Au nanoparticles that function as nanomotors. Dynamic light scattering measurements showed nanomotor activity that depends on H₂O₂ concentration, consistent with chemical propulsion. Gold nanoparticles/Origami hybrids were assembled in 2D lattices of different symmetries arranged by DNA linkers. The third section details the design process and synthesis of nanomotors using DNA as a structural scaffold. 3D DNA Origami rectangular prisms were functionalised site-specifically with bioconjugated catalysts, i.e. Pt nanoparticles and catalase. Enzymatic nanomotors were also conjugated to various cargoes and their motor activity was demonstrated by Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy. In the final section, control mechanisms for autonomous nanomotors are studied, which includes the conformational change of DNA aptamers in response to chemical signals, as well as a design for an adaptive dynamical system based on DNA/enzyme reaction networks.

L’objectif de ce travail était de contrôler les propriétés rhéologiques de solutions aqueuses de copolymères amphiphiles. Dans l’eau, ces copolymères s’auto-associent et leurs propriétés peuvent être contrôlées en partie par leur dynamique d’échange. Il avait précédemment était montré que cette dynamique pouvait être contrôlée par le pH et la quantité d’unités acide acrylique dans des triblocs BAB (THx) où le bloc A est du poly(acide acrylique) (PAA) et les blocs B sont des copolymères statistiques (MHx) d’acrylate de n-butyle (nBA) et d’acide acrylique (AA). Tout d’abord, l’étude de l’auto-association en solution des blocs B seuls (MHx) a montré un lien fort entre leur agrégation et celle des diblocs de type BA (DHx). Cette agrégation est contrôlée par la quantité de charge des blocs B. Par la suite, des mélanges de triblocs (BAB) THx contenant différentes proportions (x) d’unités AA ont permis la formation de réseaux hybrides dont les propriétés rhéologiques sont maîtrisées par formulation plutôt que via la chimie. Des propriétés rhéologiques similaires aux triblocs BAB (THx) ont été obtenues avec des copolymères greffés possédant un squelette hydrophile PAA et des greffons B. Leurs propriétés rhéologiques sont principalement contrôlées par la structure chimique des blocs B, mais aussi par le taux de greffage. Ces copolymères greffés devraient être plus simples à obtenir à l’échelle industrielle que des triblocs. Pour finir, l’approche consistant à incorporer des unités hydrophiles dans les blocs hydrophobes de copolymères amphiphiles pour en contrôler la dynamique d’échange a été appliquée avec succès à des copolymères à base de méthacrylate de diméthylaminoéthyle et de méthacrylate de n-butyle. Leurs propriétés rhéologiques peuvent être contrôlées à nouveau par le pH, mais dans une gamme différente des polymères à base d’acide acrylique, et aussi dans une certaine mesure par la température. / The aim of this work was to control the rheological properties of aqueous solutions of amphiphilic copolymers. In water, these copolymers self-assemble and part of their properties can be controlled by their dynamic of exchange. As previously reported, the exchange dynamics can be controlled by the pH and the acrylic acid (AA) content for BAB triblock copolymers (THx) consisting of a poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) A block and two statistical B blocks (MHx) of n-butyl acryle (nBA) and AA.First, the study of the self-association of B blocks (MHx) alone showed a strong relationship between their aggregation and the one of BA diblocks (DHx). This aggregation was mainly controlled by the amount of charges within the B blocks.Then, mixtures of BAB triblocks (THx) with different contents of AA units, x, formed hybrid networks the rheological properties of which were controlled by formulation rather than chemistry.Similar rheological properties were obtained using graft copolymers consisting of a PAA hydrophilic backbone and B grafts. Their rheological properties were mainly controlled by the chemical structure of the B grafts and by the grafting density. Such graft copolymers should be easier to produce at an industrial scale than triblock copolymers.To finish, the strategy consisting of incorporating hydrophilic units inside the hydrophobic blocks of amphiphilic copolymers to control their exchange dynamics was successfully applied to copolymers made of dimethylaminoethyl methacraylate and n-butyl methacrylate. Their rheological properties were controlled by the pH on a different pH-range than the AA based polymers, and, to some extent, by the temperature.

Nous étudions la possibilité de réaliser des cellules à base de diséléniure de cuivre, indium et gallium (CIGSe) à absorbeur ultra-mince, en réduisant l’épaisseur de la couche de CIGSe de 2500 nm jusqu’à 100 nm, tout en conservant un haut rendement de conversion.Grâce à l’utilisation d’outils de simulation numérique, nous étudions l’influence de la réduction d’épaisseur de l’absorbeur sur les paramètres photovoltaïques de la cellule. Une importante dégradation du rendement est observée, principalement attribuée à une réduction de la fraction de lumière absorbée par le CIGSe ainsi qu’à une collecte des porteurs de charge réduite dans les dispositifs ultraminces. Des solutions permettant de surmonter ces problèmes sont proposées et leur influence potentielle est numériquement simulée ; nous démontrons qu’une ingénierie de face avant (couche tampon alternative, couche anti-réfléchissante…) et de face arrière (contact arrière réfléchissant, diffusion de la lumière) sur une cellule CIGSe à absorbeur ultramince permet de potentiellement améliorer le rendement de la cellule solaire au niveau de celui d’une cellule à absorbeur référence (2.5 μm).Grâce à l’utilisation de techniques de gravure chimique sur des échantillons standards de CIGSe épais, nous réalisons des cellules solaires avec différentes épaisseurs d’absorbeurs, et nous étudions l’influence de l’épaisseur du CIGSe sur les paramètres photovoltaïques des cellules. Le comportement similaire aux simulations numériques.Une ingénierie du contact avant sur des cellules CIGSe à différentes épaisseurs est réalisée pour spécifiquement améliorer l’absorption dans la couche de CIGSe. Nous étudions l’influence d’une couche tampon alternative de ZnS, de la texturation de la fenêtre avant de ZnO:Al, et d’une couche anti-reflet sur la cellule solaire. D’importantes améliorations sont observées quelque soit l’épaisseur de la couche de CIGSe, ce qui permet d’obtenir des rendements de conversions supérieurs à ceux obtenus dans la configuration standard des dispositifs.Une ingénierie du contact arrière à basse température est également réalisée avec l’utilisation d’un procédé novateur combinant la gravure chimique du CIGSe avec un « lift-off » mécanique de la couche de CIGSe afin de la séparer du substrat de Molybdène. De nouveaux matériaux fortement réflecteur de lumière et précédemment incompatible avec le procédé de croissance du CIGSe sont utilisés comme contact arrière pour des cellules CIGSe ultra-minces. Une étude comparative en fonction de l’épaisseur de CIGSe entre des cellules avec contact arrière réfléchissant en Or (Au) et cellules solaires avec contact arrière standard Mo est effectuée. Le contact Au permet d’augmenter significativement le rendement de conversion des cellules solaires à absorbeur sub-microniques comparé au contact standard Mo avec un rendement de conversion supérieur à 10% obtenu sur une cellule CIGSe de 400 nm (comparé à 7.9% avec Mo).Afin de réduire encore plus l’épaisseur de la couche de CIGSe, jusque 100-200 nm, les modèles numériques montrent qu’il est nécessaire d’utiliser un réflecteur lambertien sur la face arrière de la cellule afin de maximiser l’absorption de la lumière. Un dispositif preuve de concept expérimental est réalisé avec une épaisseur de CIGSe de 200 nm et un réflecteur arrière lambertien, et ce dispositif est caractérisé par spectroscopie de transmission/réflexion. La réponse spectrale est déterminée en combinant des valeurs issues de simulation numérique et la mesure expérimental de l’absorption du dispositif. Nous calculons un courant de court circuit de 26 mA.cm-2 pour ce dispositif avec réflecteur lambertien, bien supérieur à ce qui est calculé pour la même structure sans réflecteur (15 mA.cm-2), et comparable au courant mesuré sur une cellule de référence de 2500 nm (28 mA.cm-2). L’utilisation de réflecteur lambertien pour des cellules CIGSe ultraminces est donc particulièrement adaptée pour maintenir de hauts rendements. / In this thesis, we investigate on the possibility to realize ultrathin absorber Copper Indium Gallium Di-Selenide (CIGSe) solar cells, by reducing the CIGSe thickness from 2500 nm down to 100 nm, while conserving a high conversion efficiency.Using numerical modeling, we first study the evolution of the photovoltaic parameters when reducing the absorber thickness. A strong decrease of the efficiency of the solar cell is observed, mainly related to a reduced light absorption and carrier collection for thin and ultrathin CIGSe solar cells. Solutions to overcome these problems are proposed and the potential improvements are modeled; we show that front side (buffer layer, antireflection coating) and back side (reflective back contact, light scattering) engineering of an ultrathin device can potentially increase the conversion efficiency up to the level of a standard thick CIGSe solar cell.By using chemical bromine etching on a standard thick CIGSe layer, we realize solar cells with different absorber thicknesses and experimentally study the influence of the absorber thickness on the photovoltaic parameters of the devices. Experiments show a similar trends to that observed in numerical modeling.Front contact engineering on thin CIGSe solar cell is realized to increase the specific absorption in CIGSe, including alternative ZnS buffer, front ZnO:Al window texturation and anti-reflection coating. Substantial improvements are observed whatever the CIGSe thickness, with efficiencies higher that the default configuration.A back contact engineering at low temperature is realized by using an innovative approach combining chemical etching of the CIGSe and mechanical lift-off of the CIGSe from the original Molybdenum (Mo) substrate. New highly reflective materials previously incompatible with the standard solar cell process are used as back contact for thin and ultrathin CIGSe solar cells, and a comparative study between standard Mo back contact and alternative reflective Au back contact solar cells is performed. The Au back reflector significantly enhance the efficiency of solar cell with sub-micrometer absorbers compared to the standard Mo back reflector; an efficiency higher than 10 % on a 400 nm CIGSe is obtained with Au back contact (7.9% with standard Mo back contact). For further reduction of the absorber thickness down to 100-200 nm, numerical modeling show that a lambertian back reflector is needed to fully absorb the incident light in the CIGSe. An experimental proof of concept device with a CIGSe thickness of 200 nm and a lambertian back reflector is realized and characterized by reflection/transmission spectroscopy, and the experimental spectral response is determined by combining simulation and experimentally measured absorption. A short circuit current of 26 mA.cm-2 is determined with the lambertian back reflector, which is much higher than what is obtained for the same device with no reflector (15 mA.cm-2), and comparable to the short circuit current measured on a reference 2500 nm thick CIGSe solar cell (28 mA.cm-2). Lambertian back reflectors are therefore found to be the most effective way to enhance the efficiency of an ultrathin CIGSe solar cell up to the level of a reference thick CIGSe solar cell.

<p>Detailed characterization of size and shape of polymers, and development of methods to elucidate the mechanisms behind shape transitions are central issues in this thesis. In particular we characterize grafted polymer chains under confinement in terms of the chain entanglement complexity and mean molecular size. Confinement of polymers into small regions can drastically affect the structural and mechanical properties, and make these systems convenient for a large number of applications, including the design of lubricants, coatings, and various biotechnical applications.</p><p>Using Monte Carlo simulations with a model including both persistence length and intramolecular non-bonded interaction, we find two regimes of polymer behaviour: <i>i) soft mushrooms</i>, where confinement successively flattens the chains with accompanying change in the folding complexity, and <i>ii) hard mushrooms </i>where the compact structures appear to resist confinement and the only way to reorganize the entanglements is by flattening under strong confinement. We also show that a simultaneous use of mean molecular size and chain entanglement complexity renders the possibility to create configurational "phase" diagrams for a wide range of polymers. We have further introduced a new descriptor of folding complexity, <i>the path-space ratio</i>, ζ_α which captures essential features of molecular shape beyond those conveyed by mean size and asphericity.</p><p>This thesis also contains results of light scattering measurements on supramolecular complexes formed when mixing an adamantane end-capped star polymer with a β-cyclodextrin polymer. The specific interactions result in an interplay between the association of the end-caps and a strong inclusion interaction between adamantane and β-cyclodextrin.</p>