Cette thèse vise à proposer de nouvelles méthodes permettant de reconstruire la circulation dans le manteau terrestre et l'évolution de la tectonique de surface pour les deux cents derniers millions d'années. Nous utilisons des modèles numériques de convection mantellique dans lesquels la dynamique de surface est comparable à la tectonique terrestre. En combinant ces modèles avec des reconstructions de la tectonique des plaques il est possible d'estimerla structure et l'évolution du champ de température dans le manteau. Jusqu'à présent, l'inclusion des reconstructions de la tectonique des plaques se faisait en imposant des conditions aux limites du modèle (équilibre des forces, vitesses imposées...). Ces techniques, bien que permettant de tester la validité de différents scénarios tectoniques alternatifs, n'autorisent pas de rétroaction dynamique de la convection mantellique sur la tectonique de surface.Dans ce travail, nous avons développé des techniques d'assimilation de données permettant d'intégrer les reconstructions de la tectonique des plaques dans un modèle numérique tout en laissant se développer de manière auto-cohérente cette rétroaction. Les techniques développées permettent également de prendre en compte les incertitudes associées aux reconstructions de la tectonique des plaques et de calculer les erreurs sur l'estimation finale de la circulationmantellique.Dans un premier temps, nous avons développé un filtre de Kalman suboptimal qui permet d'estimer la structure et l'évolution de la circulation mantellique la plus probable à partir d'un modèle numérique de convection et d'une sérietemporelle d'observations de surface, ainsi que de leurs incertitudes respectives.Ce filtre a été testé sur des expériences synthétiques. Celles-ci consistent à tenter de retrouver une évolution témoin à partir d'une série temporelle de données issues de cette évolution. Ces expériences ont montré qu'il était possible, enprincipe, de reconstruire la structure et l'évolution de l'ensemble du manteau à partir d'observations de vitesses et de flux de chaleur à la surface.Dans un second temps, nous avons développé un filtre de Kalman d'ensemble. Ce filtre permet non seulement d'estimer de manière plus précise la géométrie des structures mantelliques, mais aussi les incertitudes sur cette estimation. / This dissertation focuses on the developpement of data assimilation methods to reconstruct the circulation of the Earth's mantle and the evolution of its surface tectonics for the last 200~Myrs. We use numerical models of mantle convection in which the surface dynamics is similar to the Earth's. By combining these models with plate tectonics reconstructions, it is possible to estimate the structure and evolution of the temperature field of the mantle. So far, the assimilation of plate tectonics reconstructions was done by imposing specific boundary conditions in the model (force balance, imposed velocities...). These techniques, although insightful to test the likeliness of alternative tectonic scenarios, do not allow the full expression of the dynamical feedback between mantle convection and surface tectonics. We develop sequential data assimilation techniques able to assimilate plate tectonics reconstructions in a numerical model while simultaneously letting this dynamicalfeedback develop self-consistently. Moreover, these techniques take into account errors in plate tectonics reconstructions, and compute the error on the final estimation of mantle circulation.First, we develop a suboptimal Kalman filter. This filter estimates the most likely structure and evolution of mantle circulation from a numerical model of mantle convection, a time series of surface observations and the uncertainty on both. This filter was tested on synthetic experiments. The principle of a synthetic experiment is to apply the data assimilation algorithm to a set of synthetic observations obtained from a reference run, and to then compare the obtained estimation of the evolution with the reference evolution. The synthetic experiments we conducted showed that it was possible, in principle, to reconstruct the structure and evolution of the whole mantle from surface velocities and heat flux observations.Second, we develop an Ensemble Kalman Filter. Instead of estimating the most likely evolution, an ensemble of possible evolutions are computed. This technique leads to a better estimation of the geometry of mantle structures and a more complete estimation of the uncertainties associated.

Abstract The lithospheric conductivity in the westernmost Fennoscandia has been studied using magnetotelluric (MT) data. The western margin of Fennoscandia was significantly affected in Paleozoic by the Caledonian orogeny and later by the rifting of Laurentia and the opening of the Atlantic Ocean c. 80 Ma ago. Magnetotelluric studies have been carried out in two target areas in southern Norway and in western Fennoscandia. The first study resulted in 2-D geoelectric models of two profiles stretching from Oslo to the Norwegian coast. The interpretation suggests that the basement is in general very resistive with a few conductive upper crustal layers, representing the alum shales, and middle crustal conductors possibly imaging the remnants of the closed ocean basins. A more extensive MT study was performed within the project "Magnetotellurics in the Scandes". Measurements were carried in summers of 2011 to 2013, resulting in an array of 279 MT sites. The data allowed us to derive 2-D geoelectric models for the crust and upper mantle as well as 3-D models for the crust. The inversions revealed a resistive upper crust and a conductive lower crust, two upper crustal conductors in the Skellefteå and Kittilä districts, highly conducting alum shales in the Caledonides and a conductive upper crust beneath the Lofoten peninsula. The thickness of the lithosphere is around 200 km in the north and 300 km in the south-west. The Palaeoproterozoic lithosphere is the thickest, not the Archaean, on contrary to a generally accepted hypothesis. A better image of the lithosphere will help to evaluate the proposed mechanisms of the exhumation of the Scandinavian Mountains. The theoretical part of this study is the development of a new multi-resolution approach to 3-D electromagnetic (EM) modelling. Three-dimensional modelling of MT data requires enormous computational resources because of the huge number of data and model parameters. The development of the multi-resolution forward solver is based on the fact that a finer grid resolution is often required near the surface. On the other hand, the EM fields propagate in a diffusive manner and can be sufficiently well described on a grid that becomes coarser with depth. Tests showed that the total run time can be reduced by five times and the memory requirements by three times compared with the standard staggered grid forward solver. / Tiivistelmä Olemme tutkineet litosfäärin sähkönjohtavuutta Fennoskandian länsiosassa magnetotelluurisen (MT) menetelmän avulla. Fennoskandian länsireuna muokkautui merkittävästi paleotsooisena aikana Kaledonidien vuorijonopoimutuksessa sekä myöhemmin mesotsooisena aikana Laurentia-mantereen repeytyessä ja Atlantin valtameren syntyessä noin 80 miljoonaa vuotta sitten. MT-tutkimukset tehtiin Etelä-Norjassa ja Fennoskandian luoteisosassa. Ensimmäisessä tutkimuksessa kallioperän sähkönjohtavuutta kuvattiin kaksiulotteisilla (2-D) johtavuusmalleilla, jotka ulottuvat Oslosta Norjan rannikolle. Mallien tulkinta viittaa siihen, että maan kuori on pääosin hyvin eristävä lukuun ottamatta muutamaa kuoren ylä- ja keskiosassa olevaa johdekerrosta. Yläkuoren johteet edustavat alunaliuskeita ja keskikuoren johteet todennäköisesti suljetuissa merialtaissa syntyneitä hiilipitoisia sedimenttikerrostumia. Laajempi MT-tutkimus tehtiin ”Magnetotellurics in the Scandes” -hankkeessa. Mittauksia tehtiin 279 mittauspisteessä kesinä 2011–2013. Saadun aineiston avulla voitiin laatia 2-D inversiomallit kuoresta ja ylävaipasta sekä 3-D inversiomalli kuoresta. Tulosten mukaan täällä kuoren yläosa on eristävä kun taas kuoren alaosa on sähköä hyvin johtava. Edellisen lisäksi malleissa näkyy yläkuoren johtavat muodostumat Skellefteån ja Kittilän alueilla, korkean johtavuuden alunaliuskeet Kaledonidien alueella sekä johde Lofoottien alla. Litosfäärin paksuus on noin 200 km mittausverkon pohjoisosassa ja noin 300 km lounaassa. Tämän mukaan litosfääri on paksuin varhaisproterotsooisen litosfäärin alueella, ei arkeeisen litosfäärin alueella vastoin yleistä hypoteesia. Tutkimuksen teoreettisessa osassa kehitettiin sähkömagneettiseen mallinnukseen uusi monitasoiseen diskretisointiin perustuva menetelmä. MT-aineiston 3-D käänteisongelman ratkaisu ja siihen liittyvä suora mallintaminen vaativat suuren laskennallisen kapasiteetin, koska havaintojen ja mallin kuvaamiseen tarvittavien parametrien määrä on erittäin suuri. Moniresoluutio-algoritmi perustuu siihen, että mallin hienojakoisempaa diskretisointia tarvitaan yleensä lähellä maan pintaa kun taas syvemmälle edettäessä, sähkömagneettisen aallon diffuusin etenemisen vuoksi, malli voi olla karkeampi. Tietokonesimulaatioiden mukaan suoritusaika on viidennes ja muistitarve kolmannes verrattuna tavanomaiseen suoran laskennan ”staggered grid” -diskretisointiin.

Les zones de cisaillement constituent des objets structuraux communs de la lithosphère. À grande échelle, elles sont le siège principal des déplacements entre plaques tectoniques, accommodant de grandes quantités de déformation. La compréhension de leur comportement mécanique dans le temps et l'espace est donc essentielle pour la connaissance générale de la dynamique de la lithosphère. La température joue un rôle majeur sur la loi de comportement rhéologique qui caractérise le domaine ductile (en profondeur), réduisant alors efficacement la résistance mécanique. Chaque roche possède en outre des propriétés mécaniques intrinsèques qui varient en fonction de sa composition minéralogique, de sa texture et de sa structure interne. Or, en l'absence de grandeurs directement mesurables en profondeur, la rhéologie de la lithosphère demeure sujette à diverses interprétations. Le comportement mécanique des zones de cisaillement est d'autant plus méconnu qu'elles sont le siège d'intenses changements de la nature des roches et de perturbations thermiques majeures. En particulier, l'énergie mécanique qui y est convertie en chaleur (shear heating) peut engendrer une étroite interrelation entre thermique et mécanique. Ce travail de thèse vise à contribuer à la connaissance générale de la rhéologie des zones de cisaillement lithosphérique. Une approche originale a été mise en place, se basant sur l'évolution thermique aux abords et au sein des zones de cisaillement. Sur la base de modèles numériques thermo-cinématiques 2-D et de développements analytiques, la variabilité de premier ordre de l'évolution et de la perturbation thermique est analysée et quantifiée au regard de l'influence des trois processus thermiques majeurs que sont la diffusion, l'advection et le shear heating. Les résultats sont confrontés aux signatures thermiques métamorphiques associées aux chevauchements intra-continentaux pour lesquels les influences des processus d'accrétion et d'érosion sont également examinées. Le cas du Main Central Thrust (Himalaya), associé à une inversion thermique métamorphique bien développée, est pris comme exemple de référence. Nos résultats quantitatifs mettent en avant le rôle crucial du shear heating, notamment de la variabilité de la résistance mécanique des zones de cisaillement. L'accent est mis sur l'importance des paramètres de fluage des roches. L'étude de zones de cisaillement centimétriques développées au sein de la granodiorite du Zillertal (fenêtre des Tauern, Alpes) à la faveur de faibles variations de la composition minéralogique révèle l'extrême sensibilité de la rhéologie des roches ignées représentatives de la croûte continentale. Les conséquences de cette variabilité intense à petite échelle sont finalement discutées au regard des rhéologies classiquement considérées dans les modèles qui s'intéressent aux processus qui régissent la dynamique de la lithosphère. / Shear zones are common structural features in the lithosphere and occur at various scales (from microscopic to lithospheric). At the lithospheric scale, they concentrate most of the relative movements between tectonic plates, and therefore, accommodate a high amount of strain. Consequently, the understanding of both their spatial and temporal mechanical behaviour is crucial for the general knowledge of the lithosphe dynamics. Rheology of rocks, which define their mechanical behaviour, is controlled by physical laws that predict how they deform under some stresses. Temperature plays a major role in the creep-dislocation behaviour, which characterizes the ductile domain (in depth), decreasing efficiently the rock strength. Furthermore, each rock has intrinsic mechanical properties, which depend on its mineralogical composition, texture and internal structures. However, due to the lack of data directly measurable deeper than a few kilometres, the lithosphere rheology, and in particular the continental lithosphere remains subject to drastically different interpretations. The mechanical behaviour of major shear zones is not fully understood, as they are the location of intense changes of both the rock internal nature and major thermal perturbations. Especially, the mechanical energy, converted into heat (shear heating) causes a close interaction between thermal ad mechanical evolutions. This thesis aims to better understand the rheological state of lithospheric scale shear zones. For this purpose, we used an original approach, based on the temperature field evolution around and within such shear zones. From 2D numerical thermo-kinematic models and analytical developments, the first order variability of thermal evolution and perturbation is anal- ysed and quantified with respect to the impact of three major thermal processes, defined as diffusion, advection and shear heating. Results are compared to metamorphic thermal signatures associated to intra-continental thrust zones for which the influence of both accretion and erosion was also investigated. The case of the Main Central Thrust (MCT) in the Himalayas, whose the inverse metamorphic thermal zonation has been extensively studied, was chosen as the main natural analogue. Our quantitative results highlight the crucial role of shear heating, and more particularly of mechanical strength variability within shear zones. We thus emphasise on the importance of rock creep parameters. The study of centimetre-scale shear zones, which developed within the granodiorite of the Zillertal nappe (Tauern window, Tyrol, Alps) thanks to little local variations of the mineralogical composition, reveals the extreme sensitivity of igneous rocks rheology, representative of the continental crust. The consequences of such an intense variability, revealed at small scale are finally discussed with regard to rheologies usually considered in models that focus on processes controlling lithosphere dynamics.

Cette thèse regroupe deux études distinctes, qui documentent le contrôle des microstructures sur les propriétés sismiques des roches. La première partie traite du développement des orientations préférentielles cristallographiques (OPC) dans le manteau supérieur, associé aux interactions liquide/magma-roche, enregistré dans des xénolites de péridotites du bassin d'arrière-arc de la mer du Japon. Les caractéristiques microstucturales et géochimiques des échantillons étudiés montrent que l'ouverture arrière-arc active est associée à une déformation du manteau supérieure similaire à celle observée dans l'ophiolite d'Oman. L'initiation de l'extension d'arrière-arc n'est pas associée à de fortes interactions entre percolation magmatique et déformation, en comparaison avec les zones de rifting continentales, probablement en raison des taille et durée relativement petites de l'épisode d'ouverture. La seconde partie présente une base de données unique d'OPC de plagioclase de roches mafiques plus ou moins déformées. Les OPC sont classées en 3 types principaux; leurs caractéristiques en fonction du régime de déformation (magmatique ou plastique) sont présentées et discutées. Les propriétés sismiques calculées des roches gabbroiques montrent que l'anisotropie tend à croitre avec l'intensité des fabriques, bien qu'elle soit généralement faible, en raison des effets opposés des olivines/clinopyroxènes et du plagioclase. / This thesis compiles two distinct studies that both document the control of microstructures on rock seismic properties. The first part deals with the development of crystallographic preferred orientations (CPO) in the uppermost mantle associated with melt/fluid-rock interactions, recorded in peridotites xenoliths from the Japan sea back-arc basin. The microstructural and geochemical characteristics of the studied samples reveal that active spreading is associated to uppermost mantle deformation similar to that observed in the Oman ophiolite. At the onset of back-arc spreading, there are no strong interactions between melt percolation and deformation in comparison to continental rift zones, probably due to the relatively small size and short duration of the spreading event. The second part presents a unique database of plagioclase CPO from variously deformed mafic rocks. CPO are grouped in three main types; their characteristics as a function of deformation regime (magmatic or crystal-plastic) are outlined and discussed. Calculated seismic properties of gabbroic rocks show that anisotropy tends to increase as a function of fabric strength, although it is generally weak, due to the competing effect of olivine/clinopyroxene and plagioclase.

Utilizamos neste trabalho duas metodologias distintas, a função do receptor com ondas P e a função do receptor com ondas S, para mapear variações da crosta e interfaces do manto (litosfera-astenosfera, 410 km e 660 km) em diferentes estações sismográficas na placa Sul-Americana. No estudo da interface litosfera-astenosfera, por ser o primeiro realizado nesta região, utilizamos as estações temporárias do IAG/USP em conjunto com as estações permanentes da rede mundial cobrindo toda a placa Sul-Americana. O estudo para as outras interfaces (Crosta-Manto, 410 km e 660 km) foi feito com caráter regional, buscando detalhar características da crosta e manto na região estável da placa. Para ambos os métodos os traços (sismogramas) foram rotacionados para o sistema LQT, deconvolvidos, agrupados por pontos de perfuração e por estações, e finalmente empilhados. Nos traços empilhados as fases convertidas de interesse (Ps, Ppps, Ppss+Psps e Sp) foram identificadas e interpretadas. Para a parte estável da placa obtivemos um valor médio de espessura da crosta de 39.4±0.6 km, variando desde 31.0±0.5 km para a província Borborema, até 41.3±1.0 km para a bacia do Paraná, onde aplicamos uma correção para descontar o efeito do sedimento. A razão de velocidade para a crosta, Vp/Vs, apresentou valores mais altos para a bacia do Paraná (~1.75±0.08) e região litorânea oriental (>1.74), enquanto que as regiões cratônicas (cráton São Francisco e Amazônico) apresentaram valores de Vp/Vs baixos (<1.72), chegando até 1.68. O valor médio de Vp/Vs para todas as estações analisadas foi de 1.73±0.02. As variações dos tempos para as interfaces do manto mostraram boa correlação com resultados de tomografia sísmica de outros trabalhos, indicando alterações de até 5% na velocidade das ondas sísmicas para o manto superior sob os crátons, uma deflexão de até 15 km na interface de 660 km para a região Sul da bacia do Paraná e se mostraram bem correlacionadas com as médias globais para as outras região estudadas. Por fim, a espessura da litosfera apresentou valores desde ~40 km, sob as regiões de ilhas oceânicas, até ~160 km, sob as regiões mais estáveis. Para as regiões oceânicas a espessura da litosfera se mostra correlacionada com a idade da placa. À medida que adentramos a parte continental, o limite litosfera-astenosfera se torna menos proeminente, atingindo profundidades maiores no interior dos continentes e menores para as regiões marginais. Para a zona de subducção, observamos duas possíveis litosferas, uma oceânica, subduzindo junto com a placa de Nazca, e outra pertencente à parte continental. / Two distinct methodologies, the P- and S-wave receiver functions, are used to map variations in the crustal parameters (thickness and Vp/Vs) and mantle interfaces (lithosphere-asthenosphere, 410 km and 660 km) on a number of different seismograph stations located in the South American plate. The results of the S receiver function for the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary are the first of this kind ever performed in South American continent and showed the large scale variations of this interface. To perform this study we analyze data from various global permanent stations together with all available data from temporary stations operated by the IAG/USP during the last15 years. For both methods the traces (seismograms) were rotated to the LQT system, deconvolved, grouped by piercing points and stations, and finally stacked. In the stacked traces, the converted phases (Ps, Ppps, Ppss+Psps and Sp) were identified and interpreted. Inside the stable part of the plate we found a mean crustal thickness of 39.4±0.6 km, ranging from 31.0±0.5 km in Borborema Province up to 41.3±1.0 km in the Paraná Basin, where we applied a correction to remove the sediment effects on the crustal estimates. The crustal velocity ratios, Vp/Vs, showed higher values for the Paraná Basin (~1.75±0.08) and Ribeira belt (>1.74), while the cratonic regions (São Francisco and Amazon cratons) showed low values of Vp/Vs (<1.72), down to 1.68. The average Vp/Vs obtained for all stations was equal to 1.73±0.02. The observed times of the converted mantle phases presented a good correlation with other tomographic studies, indicating that the upper mantle for the cratonic roots may be characterized by a variation up to 5% in seismic velocities, a 15 km deflection in the South Paraná 660 km discontinuity (probably due to a decreased temperature caused by the subducted slab); for other regions the converted times were close to the global average. As a final result, the lithospheric thickness presented values ranging from ~40 km under oceanic islands, to ~160 km under the stable continental regions. We found that for the oceanic islands the thickness of the lithosphere is correlated with the age of the plate. When we go further inside the continents, the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary becomes less sharp, reaching larger depths inside the continents and shallower depths near the continental margin. In the Andean subduction area, we observed two possibles lithospheres, one oceanic, subducting together with the Nazca plate, and another belonging to the Continent, parallel to the crust interface.

Constituant la couche limite supérieure de la convection mantellique, la lithosphère terrestre est à l'interface entre les enveloppes externes et internes de notre Planète. Les interactions multiples entre celle-ci et le manteau sont à l'origine de déformations latérales (tectonique des plaques) et verticales (topographie dynamique) de la surface terrestre. Comprendre comment la formation et l'évolution d'instabilités convectives mantelliques renouvellent sans-cesse la surface est donc primordial pour améliorer nos interprétations d'un grand nombre d'observations de surface, telles que la formation de bassins sédimentaires, le mouvement des continents, la localisation des points chauds, la formation d'anomalies gravimétriques ou encore les variations du niveau marin.Cette thèse propose de développer des modèles numériques de convection mantellique générant defaçon auto-organisée de la tectonique des plaques en surface an d'étudier la façon dont le développement et la dynamique d'instabilités convectives telles que les panneaux de subduction ou les panaches mantelliques modifient la surface, dans un contexte de tectonique de surface approchant le régime terrestre.Dans une première partie, je m'intéresse à l'influence du couplage des mouvements de convection mantellique et de tectonique des plaques sur le développement de topographie dynamique (i.e. les mouvements verticaux de la lithosphère induits par la convection mantellique) à différentes échelles spatio-temporelles. Mes résultats suggèrent que la surface terrestre peut se déformer à toutes les échelles spatiales, du fait de mouvements convectifs de grande ampleur faisant intervenir le manteau entier (> 104 km) ou encore de convection à petite échelle sub-lithosphérique (< 500 km). Les variations temporelles de topographie dynamique s‘étendent de cinq à plusieurs centaines de millions d'années selon la nature des processus convectifs dont elles dérivent. En particulier, la dynamique d'initiation ou d'arrêt des zones de subduction contrôle l'existence d'échelles intermédiaires de topographie dynamique (longueurs d'onde variant entre 500 et 104 km). Ces résultats montrent donc que les interactions entre la dynamique de la lithosphère et la convection mantellique génèrent des motifs spatio-temporels de topographie dynamique complexes et cohérents par rapport aux observations terrestres.Dans un deuxième temps, cette thèse se focalise sur la dynamique des panaches mantelliques, et leurs interactions avec la surface. Je caractérise d'abord précisement le comportement des panaches générés dans nos modèles de convection à la lumière d'observations de surface. Puis, j'étudie la façon dont leurs interactions avec la tectonique de surface et les différentes échelles convectives modifient leurs mouvements latéraux. Enfin, la compréhension de la signature thermique des interactions entre panaches et rides océaniques me permet de proposer une reconstitution des mouvements relatifs entre le panache des Açores et la ride médio-Atlantique. / Earth's lithosphere, which is the upper boundary layer of mantle convection, represents the interface between the external and internal envelopes of our Planet. The multiple interactions between the mantle and lithosphere generate lateral (plate tectonics) and vertical (dynamic topography) deformations of Earth's surface. Understanding the influence of the dynamics of mantle convective instabilities on the surface is fundamental to improve our interpretations of a large range of surface observations, such as the formation of sedimentary basins, continental motions, the location of hotspots, the presence of gravity anomalies or sea-level variations.This thesis aims at developing numerical models of whole-mantle convection self-generating plate-like tectonics in order to study the impacts of the development and the dynamics of mantle convective instabilities (such as slabs or mantle plumes) on the continuous reshaping of the surface.First, I focus on the influence of the coupling between mantle convective motions and plate tectonics on the development of dynamic topography (i.e. surface vertical deformations induced by mantle convection) at different spatial and temporal scales. The results suggest that Earth's surface can deform over large spatial scales (> 104 km) induced by whole-mantle convection to small-scales (< 500 km) arising from small-scale sub-lithospheric convection. The temporal variations of dynamic topography range between five and several hundreds of millions of years depending on the convective instabilities from which they originate. In particular, subduction initiation and slab break-off events control the existence of intermediate scales of dynamic topography (between 500 and 104 km). This reflects that the interplay between mantle convection and lithosphere dynamics generates complex spatial and temporal patterns of dynamic topography consistent with constraints for Earth.A second aim of this thesis is to understand the dynamics of mantle plumes and their interactionswith surface. I first characterize in detail the behaviour of mantle plumes arising in models ofwhole-mantle convection self-generating plate-like tectonics, in light of surface observations. Then, I study how the interactions between surface plate tectonics and mantle convection affect plume motions. Finally, I use observations of the thermal signature of plume/ridge interactions to propose a reconstruction of the relative motions between the Azores mantle plume and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

The Late Archean Magmatic Event (LAME), ca. 2.7 Ga, was the greatest crustal addition event in Earth history. My focus is the Superior Province of Canada, where LAME occurred ca. 2.75 – 2.65 Ga. Mantle plumes impinged on the Abitibi subprovince, where ~ 16 km regional thickness of tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite (TTG) melt was produced. Granites (sensu stricto) were the last magmatic phase of LAME, with a Superior-wide regional thickness of ~ 1 – 3 km. Assuming a crustal source for both TTG and granites, I use 1-D thermal models to investigate the origin of TTG in the Abitibi subprovince and that of late granites in the Superior Province. Melting curves appropriate to the source of TTG and granites are used to determine the thickness of melt produced in the models. I show that the incorporation of upward melt transfer into a standard model of lower crustal melting may increase the amount of predicted melt by ~ 1/(1-f), where f denotes the fraction of melt that is on average being extracted from the source rocks. Partitioning of heat producing elements between melt and restite reduces the amount of melt produced, but the effect is secondary compared to the increase in melt production through upward melt transfer. For the Abitibi subprovince, I show that the emplacement of a single plume coupled with the emplacement of a 12-km-thick greenstone cover can generate a maximum of ~ 9-km-thickness of TTG melt. However, the emplacement of a series of plumes, each coupled with the emplacement of a 3-km-thick greenstone cover and a 10-km-thick sill results in ~ 20-km-thickness of TTG melt. My model incorporates delamination of restitic eclogite. Finally, I show that late granites in the Superior Province may have resulted from thickening of a crust that had been “pre-heated” during earlier arc activity and that prolonged granitic magmatism observed in some areas of the Superior Province may be explained by late underthrusting of fertile source rocks into deeper and hotter regions of the crust.

The Late Archean Magmatic Event (LAME), ca. 2.7 Ga, was the greatest crustal addition event in Earth history. My focus is the Superior Province of Canada, where LAME occurred ca. 2.75 – 2.65 Ga. Mantle plumes impinged on the Abitibi subprovince, where ~ 16 km regional thickness of tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite (TTG) melt was produced. Granites (sensu stricto) were the last magmatic phase of LAME, with a Superior-wide regional thickness of ~ 1 – 3 km. Assuming a crustal source for both TTG and granites, I use 1-D thermal models to investigate the origin of TTG in the Abitibi subprovince and that of late granites in the Superior Province. Melting curves appropriate to the source of TTG and granites are used to determine the thickness of melt produced in the models. I show that the incorporation of upward melt transfer into a standard model of lower crustal melting may increase the amount of predicted melt by ~ 1/(1-f), where f denotes the fraction of melt that is on average being extracted from the source rocks. Partitioning of heat producing elements between melt and restite reduces the amount of melt produced, but the effect is secondary compared to the increase in melt production through upward melt transfer. For the Abitibi subprovince, I show that the emplacement of a single plume coupled with the emplacement of a 12-km-thick greenstone cover can generate a maximum of ~ 9-km-thickness of TTG melt. However, the emplacement of a series of plumes, each coupled with the emplacement of a 3-km-thick greenstone cover and a 10-km-thick sill results in ~ 20-km-thickness of TTG melt. My model incorporates delamination of restitic eclogite. Finally, I show that late granites in the Superior Province may have resulted from thickening of a crust that had been “pre-heated” during earlier arc activity and that prolonged granitic magmatism observed in some areas of the Superior Province may be explained by late underthrusting of fertile source rocks into deeper and hotter regions of the crust.

Glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) is the process by which the solid Earth responds to past and present-day changes in glaciers, ice caps, and ice sheets. This thesis focuses on vertical crustal motion of the Earth caused by GIA, which is influenced by several factors including lithosphere thickness, mantle viscosity profile, and changes to the thickness and extent of surface ice. The viscosity of the mantle beneath Antarctica is a poorly constrained quantity due to the rarity of relative sea-level and heat flow observations. Other methods for obtaining a better-constrained mantle viscosity model must be investigated to obtain more accurate GIA model predictions. The first section of this study uses seismic wave tomography to determine mantle viscosity. By calculating the deviation of the P- and S-wave velocities relative to a reference Earth model (PREM), the viscosity can be determined. For Antarctica mantle viscosities obtained from S20A (Ekstrom and Dziewonski, 1998) seismic tomography in the asthenosphere range from 1016 Pa∙s to 1023 Pa∙s, with smaller viscosities beneath West Antarctica and higher viscosities beneath East Antarctica. This agrees with viscosity expectations based on findings from the Basin and Range area of North America, which is an analogue to the West Antarctic Rift System. Section two compares bedrock elevations in Antarctica to crustal thicknesses, to infer mantle temperatures and draw conclusions about mantle viscosity. Data from CRUST 2.0 (Bassin et al., 2000), BEDMAP (Lythe and Vaughan, 2001) and specific studies of crustal thickness in Antarctica were examined. It was found that the regions of Antarctica that are expected to have low viscosities agree with the hot mantle trend found by Hyndman (2010) while the regions expected to have high viscosity are in better agreement with the trend for cold mantle. Bevis et al. (2009) described new GPS observations of crustal uplift in Antarctica and compared the results to GIA model predictions, including IJ05 (Ivins and James, 2005). Here, we have generated IJ05 predictions for a three layered mantle (viscosities ranging over more than four orders of magnitude) and compared them to the GPS observations using a χ2 measure of goodness-of-fit. The IJ05 predictions that agree best with the Bevis et al. observations have a χ2 of 16, less than the null hypothesis value of 42. These large values for the best-fit model indicate the need for model revisions and/or that uncertainties are too optimistic. Equally important, the mantle viscosities of the best-fit models are much higher than expected for West Antarctica. The smallest χ2 values are found for an asthenosphere viscosity of 1021 Pa•s, transition zone viscosity of 1023 Pa∙s and lower mantle viscosity of 2 x 1023 Pa∙s, whereas the expected viscosity of the asthenosphere beneath West Antarctica is probably less than 1020 Pa∙s. This suggests that revisions to the IJ05 ice sheet history are required. Simulated annealing was performed on the ice sheet history and it was found that changes to the recent ice load history have the strongest effect on GIA predictions. / Graduate

Utilizamos neste trabalho duas metodologias distintas, a função do receptor com ondas P e a função do receptor com ondas S, para mapear variações da crosta e interfaces do manto (litosfera-astenosfera, 410 km e 660 km) em diferentes estações sismográficas na placa Sul-Americana. No estudo da interface litosfera-astenosfera, por ser o primeiro realizado nesta região, utilizamos as estações temporárias do IAG/USP em conjunto com as estações permanentes da rede mundial cobrindo toda a placa Sul-Americana. O estudo para as outras interfaces (Crosta-Manto, 410 km e 660 km) foi feito com caráter regional, buscando detalhar características da crosta e manto na região estável da placa. Para ambos os métodos os traços (sismogramas) foram rotacionados para o sistema LQT, deconvolvidos, agrupados por pontos de perfuração e por estações, e finalmente empilhados. Nos traços empilhados as fases convertidas de interesse (Ps, Ppps, Ppss+Psps e Sp) foram identificadas e interpretadas. Para a parte estável da placa obtivemos um valor médio de espessura da crosta de 39.4±0.6 km, variando desde 31.0±0.5 km para a província Borborema, até 41.3±1.0 km para a bacia do Paraná, onde aplicamos uma correção para descontar o efeito do sedimento. A razão de velocidade para a crosta, Vp/Vs, apresentou valores mais altos para a bacia do Paraná (~1.75±0.08) e região litorânea oriental (>1.74), enquanto que as regiões cratônicas (cráton São Francisco e Amazônico) apresentaram valores de Vp/Vs baixos (<1.72), chegando até 1.68. O valor médio de Vp/Vs para todas as estações analisadas foi de 1.73±0.02. As variações dos tempos para as interfaces do manto mostraram boa correlação com resultados de tomografia sísmica de outros trabalhos, indicando alterações de até 5% na velocidade das ondas sísmicas para o manto superior sob os crátons, uma deflexão de até 15 km na interface de 660 km para a região Sul da bacia do Paraná e se mostraram bem correlacionadas com as médias globais para as outras região estudadas. Por fim, a espessura da litosfera apresentou valores desde ~40 km, sob as regiões de ilhas oceânicas, até ~160 km, sob as regiões mais estáveis. Para as regiões oceânicas a espessura da litosfera se mostra correlacionada com a idade da placa. À medida que adentramos a parte continental, o limite litosfera-astenosfera se torna menos proeminente, atingindo profundidades maiores no interior dos continentes e menores para as regiões marginais. Para a zona de subducção, observamos duas possíveis litosferas, uma oceânica, subduzindo junto com a placa de Nazca, e outra pertencente à parte continental. / Two distinct methodologies, the P- and S-wave receiver functions, are used to map variations in the crustal parameters (thickness and Vp/Vs) and mantle interfaces (lithosphere-asthenosphere, 410 km and 660 km) on a number of different seismograph stations located in the South American plate. The results of the S receiver function for the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary are the first of this kind ever performed in South American continent and showed the large scale variations of this interface. To perform this study we analyze data from various global permanent stations together with all available data from temporary stations operated by the IAG/USP during the last15 years. For both methods the traces (seismograms) were rotated to the LQT system, deconvolved, grouped by piercing points and stations, and finally stacked. In the stacked traces, the converted phases (Ps, Ppps, Ppss+Psps and Sp) were identified and interpreted. Inside the stable part of the plate we found a mean crustal thickness of 39.4±0.6 km, ranging from 31.0±0.5 km in Borborema Province up to 41.3±1.0 km in the Paraná Basin, where we applied a correction to remove the sediment effects on the crustal estimates. The crustal velocity ratios, Vp/Vs, showed higher values for the Paraná Basin (~1.75±0.08) and Ribeira belt (>1.74), while the cratonic regions (São Francisco and Amazon cratons) showed low values of Vp/Vs (<1.72), down to 1.68. The average Vp/Vs obtained for all stations was equal to 1.73±0.02. The observed times of the converted mantle phases presented a good correlation with other tomographic studies, indicating that the upper mantle for the cratonic roots may be characterized by a variation up to 5% in seismic velocities, a 15 km deflection in the South Paraná 660 km discontinuity (probably due to a decreased temperature caused by the subducted slab); for other regions the converted times were close to the global average. As a final result, the lithospheric thickness presented values ranging from ~40 km under oceanic islands, to ~160 km under the stable continental regions. We found that for the oceanic islands the thickness of the lithosphere is correlated with the age of the plate. When we go further inside the continents, the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary becomes less sharp, reaching larger depths inside the continents and shallower depths near the continental margin. In the Andean subduction area, we observed two possibles lithospheres, one oceanic, subducting together with the Nazca plate, and another belonging to the Continent, parallel to the crust interface.