Human health is frequently omitted from household-level studies on agricultural productivity, land-use choices, and forest degradation and deforestation. Intuition, however, suggests that it could be an extremely important factor. This dissertation is built on three essays that use household survey data from the Brazilian Amazon to examine the conditions under which human health and other critical market conditions are important factors in determining household agriculture production choices and efficiency. Essay I (Chapter 2) examines how health affects the labor allocation and production choices of migrant smallholders in the Brazilian Amazon. We show that the impacts of illness on household decisions depend critically on labor market function in the rural areas of the tropics. Furthermore, results from a formal statistical test of the labor markets shows that they do not work well, in other words are incomplete or thin, in the study area. These results are important both in specification of future smallholder household economic models and in targeting policies to better alleviate poverty and encourage more sustainable use of forest and land resources in similar tropical regions. Essay II (Chapter 3) investigates the role of health as a productive input and non-input factor of production. By using a non-neutral stochastic production approach, the impact of health is decomposed into direct effect on the production function and indirect effects on technical efficiency. The finding of the essay suggests that poor health has significant negative impacts on rural household production. The most important policy implication is that careful designing of agriculture development and rural settlements programs is important, and the provision of health care should be tied to these development projects. Essay III (Chapter 4) examines the demand for labor applied to land clearing, staple food production, livestock, working off-farm, and time taking care of sick people in the household. Specifically the empirical application examines the impact of disease on labor allocation, accounting for time lost by households taking care of sick members as a non-productive activity. Disease plays an important role in household decisions because farm activities are performed inefficiently by sick households and changes in household labor efficiency brings about a change in the relative price of competing uses for a household's time. Chapter 5 provides a summary and general conclusion of the work, and then provides comments on policy design and recommendations for further studies. In summary, the combined results of these studies show that both health condition and the quality of labor markets have significant interacting impacts on the labor allocation decisions by smallholders with accompanying welfare and deforestation implications. / Doctor of Philosophy / Most of the rural population of the Brazilian Amazon is made up of small-scale farmers – the so-called 'smallholders' – who are characterized by a lack of access to formal credit, a disconnection from social services, poor access to markets, and a dependency on their own labor as the main input in agricultural production, and thus survival. Since labor is the main input used in smallholder activities, albeit to different extents, anything that changes total household labor or labor efficiency adjusts the relative returns of competing uses, and thus labor allocation decisions. This PhD dissertation is an effort to understand whether markets, family health, and seasonality affect labor allocation decisions, and furthermore, whether those allocation decisions vary depending on productive activity. Based on cross-sectional farm data from the Brazilian Amazon, I find that the impacts of illness on household decisions depend critically on how well labor market function in rural areas. The results from a statistical test of the labor markets shows that they do not work well in the study area. These results are important both in specification of future smallholder household economic models and in targeting policies to better alleviate poverty and encourage more sustainable use of forests and land resources in similar settings. Also, I find that poor health has a significant negative impact on technical efficiency of rural household farm production. The most important policy implication is that careful designing of agriculture development and rural settlements programs is important, and the provision of health care care should be tied to these development projects. Finally, in the context of the region of study, where labor markets are thin, disease plays an important role on in household decisions because farm activities are performed inefficiently by sick households and change in labor efficiency brings about a change in relative prices of competing uses of household's time. My empirical work supports the hypothesis that health influence labor allocation decisions. In conclusion, the combined results of these studies show that both health conditions and the quality of labor markets have significant interacting impacts on the labor allocation decisions by smallholders with accompanying welfare and deforestation implications.

The island of La Gonave, ~50 km northwest of Port-au-Prince, represents the subsistence Haitian lifestyle. Little is known about human--environment interactions on La Gonave. The first objective of this research was to investigate landscape dynamics through image classification, change detection, and landscape pattern analysis using Landsat 5 (TM) imagery from 1990--2010. Five land cover classes were considered: Agriculture, Forest/Dense Vegetation (DV), Shrub, Barren/Eroded, and Nonforested Wetlands. Overall image classification accuracy was 87%. The area percent change was -39.7, -22.7, 87.4, -7.0, 10.2%, for the respective classes. Landscape pattern analysis illustrated the encroachment of Shrub in core Forest/DV patches and the decline of Agricultural patch integrity. Agricultural abandonment, deforestation, and forest regrowth generated an increasingly fragmented landscape. The second objective of this research was to better understand the survival of the red-tailed hawk (RTH) on La Gonave by exploring the human--RTH relationship. We implemented a survey (n = 121) in 10 rural villages on La Gonave regarding their perceptions and interactions with the RTH during May--June, 2012. During fieldwork we sighted seven RTHs and found one nest. Many respondents noted the aggressive behavior of RTHs during nesting, suggesting reproductive behavior on the island. Our results indicate that RTHs inhabiting this island were not persecuted, despite intense predation of domestic chickens. Aside from predation near homes, villagers do not interact with the hawk as it remains out of sight. The RTH currently has no known predators, but it remains in danger of island extirpation due to ecological degradation. / Master of Science

Text in English / Ruti dam is located on the Nyazvidzi river, and is home to many Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus), which rely on fish and livestock for food. The community also relies on the dam and riverine for its resources. The investigation of crocodile impacts on humans and livestock, the trends and seasonality of attacks and identification of other predators resulted in formulation of research. The field interviews, using a structured questionnaire, field observation and focused group discussions were mainly used in data collection. Threats posed by crocodiles were identified as mainly human and livestock depredation, which has increased since the introduction of the crocodiles into the dam. The crocodile depredation varies between seasons, due to differences in water levels in the dam, and availability of alternative water sources. The attacks were mostly during the dry season and at the beginning of the wet season, when there were fewer water sources and when the water was dark and murky. The study assessed the human-crocodile conflict situation, based on interviews with the local residents and focused group discussions with fishermen. The conflict arose with livestock farmers after animal kills and fishermen, in cases of death, injury or damage to fishing gear. The killing of either humans or livestock was during the early hours of the day. Hostile attitudes of the residents towards crocodiles were high (83.9%). The majority, given the chance to eliminate the crocodile, would do so mercilessly. These negative attitudes can only be ameliorated when the damage is adequately compensated. The absence of compensation has increased the conflict, though no retaliation is taken against the crocodiles. The crocodiles prefer cattle in their kills (41% and 48%), followed by goats (38% and 25%), and, lastly, humans, in Buhera Rural District Council (BRDC) and Gutu Rural District Council (GRDC), respectively. Livestock farmers who stay close to the dam and Nyazvidzi suffer more losses, as their animals are more oftenly exposed to the dangers of crocodile predation, than those of farmers who stay far away, as they can use alternative water sources, and their animals are less likely to be exposed to the dangers of the crocodiles. The settlement pattern in BRDC has had an influence on predation. The farmers have also developed new livestock management techniques to reduce the loss of livestock. The fishermen suffer net damage on most occasions of their fish catches, as the crocodile might have learnt to follow the plastic floats on the water for easier prey from the nets. The fishing strategies have been developed to reduce fish loss. The death of fishermen is mostly that of people who enter the dam without canoes; no deaths were recorded of fishermen in canoes. Also, no capsizing of canoes has been recorded in Ruti dam, as fishermen always move in groups. Attacks in the Nyazvidzi River were on women and schoolchildren. Hyenas, as with the crocodile, have contributed to high kills of livestock (71.1%) and human kills were also reported in 2012 and July 2013. Though conflicts exist in the area, recommendations were made which might help to lower the conflicts. Educational campaigns and direct incentives from predator losses were identified as the main factors in conflict resolutions. The information on the importance of the predators and how or when it kills should be taught to respondents as they will be able to protect their livelihood. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

Text in English / Ruti dam is located on the Nyazvidzi river, and is home to many Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus), which rely on fish and livestock for food. The community also relies on the dam and riverine for its resources. The investigation of crocodile impacts on humans and livestock, the trends and seasonality of attacks and identification of other predators resulted in formulation of research. The field interviews, using a structured questionnaire, field observation and focused group discussions were mainly used in data collection. Threats posed by crocodiles were identified as mainly human and livestock depredation, which has increased since the introduction of the crocodiles into the dam. The crocodile depredation varies between seasons, due to differences in water levels in the dam, and availability of alternative water sources. The attacks were mostly during the dry season and at the beginning of the wet season, when there were fewer water sources and when the water was dark and murky. The study assessed the human-crocodile conflict situation, based on interviews with the local residents and focused group discussions with fishermen. The conflict arose with livestock farmers after animal kills and fishermen, in cases of death, injury or damage to fishing gear. The killing of either humans or livestock was during the early hours of the day. Hostile attitudes of the residents towards crocodiles were high (83.9%). The majority, given the chance to eliminate the crocodile, would do so mercilessly. These negative attitudes can only be ameliorated when the damage is adequately compensated. The absence of compensation has increased the conflict, though no retaliation is taken against the crocodiles. The crocodiles prefer cattle in their kills (41% and 48%), followed by goats (38% and 25%), and, lastly, humans, in Buhera Rural District Council (BRDC) and Gutu Rural District Council (GRDC), respectively. Livestock farmers who stay close to the dam and Nyazvidzi suffer more losses, as their animals are more oftenly exposed to the dangers of crocodile predation, than those of farmers who stay far away, as they can use alternative water sources, and their animals are less likely to be exposed to the dangers of the crocodiles. The settlement pattern in BRDC has had an influence on predation. The farmers have also developed new livestock management techniques to reduce the loss of livestock. The fishermen suffer net damage on most occasions of their fish catches, as the crocodile might have learnt to follow the plastic floats on the water for easier prey from the nets. The fishing strategies have been developed to reduce fish loss. The death of fishermen is mostly that of people who enter the dam without canoes; no deaths were recorded of fishermen in canoes. Also, no capsizing of canoes has been recorded in Ruti dam, as fishermen always move in groups. Attacks in the Nyazvidzi River were on women and schoolchildren. Hyenas, as with the crocodile, have contributed to high kills of livestock (71.1%) and human kills were also reported in 2012 and July 2013. Though conflicts exist in the area, recommendations were made which might help to lower the conflicts. Educational campaigns and direct incentives from predator losses were identified as the main factors in conflict resolutions. The information on the importance of the predators and how or when it kills should be taught to respondents as they will be able to protect their livelihood. / Environmental Sciences / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

The research problem of this mini-dissertation involves the conflicts between human and wildlife populations and the trialing of ‘compensation’ payouts that are emerging as a critical test within the conservancy. Crop raiders such as elephants, buffaloes, hippopotamus, bush pigs and small rodents, diminish farmers’ resource bases and cash crops, while carnivores are responsible for livestock losses. The aim of the research is to assess the level of community understanding of the compensation scheme and the impact of human wildlife interaction within the conservancy. This mini-dissertation investigated the level of community understanding about the Human Animal Conservancy Self-Insurance Scheme (HACSIS), and the impact of human-wildlife conflicts within the Kwandu Conservancy. Some of the research data were obtained from the conservancy game guards’ event book system, and the actual field research data were collected from the 1st August to 20th August 2006. The researcher conducted a total of 35 interviews, whereby 32 involved face-to-face interviews with single individuals, and 3 separate focus group discussions that consisted of four, five and two conservancy members. The interviews averaged 30 minutes in length. Each interview was preceded by a careful explanation of the purposes of the work, stressing that the intent was to evaluate their understanding and perceptions on HACSIS, the impact of human-wildlife conflicts and to explore better management strategies. The researcher has taken into account that the communities might exaggerate the wildlife problem based on his previous experience with the adjacent conservancy, in the hopes of gaining more compensation – they also use the researcher as a way to vent their frustration at the problem. On the assumption that there may be an element of exaggeration verification of these was obtained from the Event Book System (a manual book used by the Community Game Guards for recording both crops and livestock incidents on daily basis). This mini-dissertation reveals that 74.3 % (n = 26) of respondents are aware of the existence of the HACSIS program and its role, while 17.1 % of respondents had no idea about the scheme’s presence and its involvement to minimize the impact felt by communities when they lose livestock to predators. The percentage of respondents who claimed that they had heard of the scheme’s existence but had no knowledge of its role was 8.6 %. In addition, most respondents (n = 15) claimed that the conservancy committee did not explain to them why their claim forms were rejected. In contrast, some respondents (n = 6) did received feedback on rejected claim forms. HACSIS was not formed to compensate livestock losses based on market value, nor was it intended as a ‘compensation’ scheme. Its aim was to test a conservancy-run process – local verification of claims and monitoring by conservancy committee and traditional authority. In addition, the authorization of payments for a type of ‘self-insurance’ is drawn from conservancy income to partially offset the losses of conservancy members versus the overall gains that wildlife brings to the conservancy (direct conservancy income and local jobs through tourism, trophy hunting, own use game harvesting). Conservancy committees and the support NGO, IRDNC, agreed on the amount to be refunded for animal losses before the scheme was started, initially using donor funding in the trial phases. The amount was deliberately kept low as it was acknowledged from the start that conservancies themselves would take over the repayments from their own income. Once the conservancy was used to its own income to finance the scheme, conservancy members could vote to increase amounts paid for predator losses. The crucial aspect, according to IRDNC, was that the process itself be tested and that the scheme be run by the conservancy, with Ministry of Environment and Tourism and IRDNC merely monitoring and providing assistance as needed. Compensation is based on this pre-determined amount that is less than the livestock value. However, the research reveals that respondents (n = 19) were dissatisfied with the amount paid (N$ 800-00 per ox killed), because they claim that the amount paid to relieve the immediate impact from wildlife is too little to sustain the affected member. In contrast, some respondents (n = 8) were satisfied with the amount paid as compensation. Despite criticisms about the amount paid for livestock losses, none of the respondents (n = 22) who were familiar with the scheme wanted it to be abolished. The respondents emphasized the need for the conservancy committee to review the amount paid as compensation, especially for cattle. They suggested an increase from the current N$ 800-00 to N$ 1000-00 per ox loss. The research reveals that community livestock management practices have not changed to deliberately benefit from the compensation. In fact community management strategies have improved because of the condition set by the review committee dealing with the compensation scheme. Wildlife incidents have increased because animals are habituated to techniques used by communities to deter them and this has contributed to high livestock incidents. For human-wildlife conflicts, the research acknowledges that the conflict exists. Between 2003-2005, the Kwandu Conservancy reported 1508 incidents of damage to crops by wildlife. Species that were responsible included elephants with 30.2 % damage, bush pigs (29.8 %), hippopotamus (12.7%), antelopes (12.7 %), porcupine (7.5 %), and baboons/monkeys (7.2 %). Most of the crops destroyed by crop raiders, as suggested by the respondents, were maize (30 %), sorghum (26 %), millet (17 %), groundnuts (14 %), pumpkins (8 %) and beans (5%). During the same period of crop losses, the conservancy reported 98 livestock incidents. Animals responsible for livestock incidents were crocodile with 32 incidents (32.7 %), then hyena (23 incidents, 23.5 %), leopard (22 incidents, 22.4 %) and lion (21 incidents, 21.4%). The role of community game guards was found to be extensive. From a total 35 responses, 74.3 % (n = 26) of members stated that community game guards effectively record incidents, chased problem-causing animals from the community crop fields by shouting or shooting in the air, and assessed or verified killed livestock for compensation purposes. In addition, community game guards conduct crop assessment for record-keeping purposes. The scheme for crop compensation is to be introduced in 2007. Currently there is no proper formula to use in assessing the value of crops and the method to use to compensate the affected members. Other methods used by communities to deter wildlife include sleeping in the field to guard crops, cracking a whip, construction of human statues, hanging tins on the fence, chilli coils, watchtowers and digging trenches. Respondents had different views on the best management practices for problem-causing animals. The response was generally based on the degree of threat that the animal posed. Most (43.8 %, n = 14) preferred the monitoring of problem-causing animals that are sighted in an area as a best practice, while 40.6 % (n = 13) of respondents preferred the animal to be captured and relocated to parks. Only 25.6 % (n = 5) of respondents preferred that the animal be destroyed. The management practices preferred by respondents when an animal kills a person are different from when an animal is simply sighted in the area. If an animal kills a person, only 12.5 % (n = 4) of respondents preferred that the animal be captured and relocated to parks, while 87.5 % (n = 28) of respondents preferred the problem-causing animal to be destroyed. None of the respondents suggested monitoring as the best management option for this degree of threat. In conclusion, the research revealed that Human Animal Conservancy Self Insurance Scheme does not treat the cause of the problem but the symptom. This approach does not decrease the level of the problem given that the cause of the problem is not addressed. Therefore, the researcher stressed the need to fully explore and implement the recent piloted lion, crocodile fencing, and elephant proof fencing and elephants chilli coil to address and reduce the problem within Kwandu Conservancy. In addition, the research revealed that the scheme has very lengthy delays before compensation is paid and the review panel does not arrange meetings on the stipulated dates. This causes a back-log in the number of claims that need to be reviewed and approved. On Human Wildlife Conflict the research findings recommend the need to strengthen and improve existing problem-causing animal management strategies that are in place. Innovative strategies include reducing the number of stray livestock at night and developing static fences. Communities should be advised, as is being done by IRDNC, to herd their livestock during the day and to build strong kraals. This is the most effective and cheapest way to prevent livestock from being taken by predators at night. Further more the research revealed that the combination and rotation of the methods yield high success rather than deploying a single method over a long period, for the prevention of crop losses methods include guarding the crop field, cracking a whip, shooting in the air, watchtowers, human statues and beating drums. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

This is an exploratory study on “Evaluation of Pass-on the Gift Concept on the Socioeconomic Welfare of Rural Households: The Case of SACHZEP and ELITE Projects in Katete District, Zambia. The main research objective of the study was to evaluate the impact of the PoG concept on the socioeconomic welfare of rural households. A mixed methods approach was used involving 124 household in the survey interviews, 5 FGDs and 18 key informant interviews. Study findings showed relationships existing between type of livestock with compliance to pass on the gift (p-=0.001), food security (p=0.001), income security (p=0.007) and education at 9th grade level (p=0.002). No relationship exists between livestock type with shelter status of beneficiaries. Livestock type, water scarcity, IKS and practices, sharing of knowledge, skills and livestock affects PoG impact on socioeconomic welfare of rural households. PoG is compatible with indigenous knowledge systems and supports Human Centred Development approach. / Development Studies / M.A. (Development Studies)

No description available.

This study focused on the impact of climate change and adaptation on small-scale cattle and sheep farming in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. Using information from 500 livestock farmers between 2005 and 2009 farming season, three methods of analysis were used to determine impacts of climate change and adaptation. They were Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Binary Logistic Regression Model (BLRM) and Heckman Probit Model (HPM). Findings revealed that cattle production decreased during the study period 2005 to 2009. Preliminary descriptive statistics results indicated that farmers had different perceptions on climate change and adaptation measures between the periods 2005 and 2009. Further analysis using PCA showed that the different perceptions could be grouped into: (i) drought and windy weather patterns; (ii) information and adaptation; (iii) climate change extension services; (iv) intensive cattle and sheep production; and (v) temperatures. The results of the BLRM indicated that the most significant factors that affected climate change and adaptation were: (i) non-farm income per annum; (ii) type of weather perceived from 2005 to 2009; (iii) livestock production and ownership; (iv) distance to weather stations; (v) distance to input markets; (vi) adaptation strategies and (vii) annual average temperature. From the HPM the results indicated that marital status, level of education, formal extension, temperatures and the way in which land was acquired, significantly affected awareness on climate change. Variables that significantly affected adaptation selections were gender, formal extension, information received on climate change, temperatures and the way in which land was acquired.It was concluded that in the area of study, change in climate was already perceived by small-scale cattle and sheep farmers. Households that perceived differences in seasonal temperatures during the survey period were less likely to adapt to climate change. Having access to extension services increased the likelihood of adaptation to climate change. Information on climate change to improve livestock production appeared to play a significant role in the selection of adaptation measures. The recommendation was that government should consider cattle and sheep farmers’ perceptions on climate change when deciding on programmes for cattle and sheep production. It further suggested that the most significant factors that affected climate change, adaptation, and awareness and adaptation selections be considered when adaptation programmes are planned. / Agriculture Animal Health and Human Ecology / D.Phil. (Environmental Management)

This paper outlines the current state of environmental legislation and administration in Botswana, identifying the various problems with that system. Those problems include fragmented and overlapping administration and out-dated legislation that is not in keeping with modem, holistic approaches to environmental management, ineffective and unreliable enforcement, compounded by rampant non-compliance. The paper then considers some the developments that are being made to improve this situation, including: the conversion of the environmental agency into a department and the introduction of an over-reaching environmental Act, preparation of a wetlands conservation strategy, the introduction of environmental impact assessment legislation. The paper concludes by querying the effectiveness of those developments when unsustainable attitudes continue to predominate in the country / Law / LL.M.

Given the livelihoods challenges which face many rural communities, understanding a community’s livelihoods dynamics and opportunities is one major step to developing workable options to address the challenges. This study has focused on one rural community and used the five determinants of the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach to describe the livelihoods situation in Embui sub-location in Machakos County, Kenya. Residents of Embui have had to deal with the fact that traditional production systems are not sufficient to provide for their livelihoods needs. The community and continues to be challenged by limited capital for diversifying income sources, low skills and limited social and economic services. This study recommends support to marketing of locally produced artifacts, improved access to capital and provision of water for irrigation along with extension services as the key areas of support to improve the living standards of the residents of Embui / Development Studies / M.A. (Development Studies)