Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most commonly diagnosed cancer and the second leading cause of cancer death in the United States. Aldo-keto reductase 1 B10 (AKR1B10) is highly expressed in colon and small intestine of normal humans, but its expression is lost or markedly down-regulated in tissues of patients with ulcerative colitis (UC) and CRC. AKR1B10 is a monomeric cytosolic enzyme with strong enzymatic activity to α, β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds, protecting cells from carbonyl lesions; AKR1B10 also mediates de novo synthesis of long chain fatty acids and membrane lipids, such as phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2). To study the etiopathogenic role of AKR1B10 in UC and CRC, our lab generated AKR1B8 deficient (AKR1B8 -/-) mice. AKR1 B8 is the orthologue in mice of human AKR1B10,

Pulses (i.e. beans, lentils, and chickpeas) are enriched in plant-based proteins and non-digestible carbohydrates (e.g. fibre) that may beneficially impact intestinal and metabolic health. The objectives of this thesis were to determine if i) consumption of diet supplemented with kidney beans would improve biomarkers of intestinal and metabolic health, ii) dark-colored beans would provide additional health benefits compared to light-colored beans, and iii) background diet composition would impact the health effects of kidney bean consumption. Study 1: 5-week-old male C57Bl/6 mice were fed either a basal diet (BD; 20% casein, wt/wt), or isocaloric diets supplemented with 15% cooked white kidney beans or dark red kidney beans for 9 weeks (n=12/group); Study 2: 5-week-old male C57Bl/6 mice were fed either a high-fat diet (HF; 60% kcals from fat) or HF diet supplemented with 15% cooked white kidney beans or dark red kidney beans. In both studies, consumption of diets supplemented with beans improved microbiota community structure and activity, as indicated by increased abundance of short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) producing bacteria (Prevotella and S24-7) and intestinal SCFA concentrations, with dark kidney beans inducing the greatest effects. Furthermore, biomarkers of colonic inflammation, barrier integrity, and metabolic health were beneficially impacted by kidney bean consumption, however, the effects were greater in mice consuming low-fat vs. high-fat diets. In conclusion, this thesis demonstrated that while kidney bean consumption led to improvements in intestinal and metabolic health, the results were influenced by seed coat color and the nutrient composition of the background diet.

La fermentation des fibres alimentaires est l’une des fonctions majeures du microbiote intestinal humain. Les bactéries fibrolytiques synthétisent un grand nombre d’enzymes, appelées Glycoside Hydrolases (GH), indispensables à la déconstruction de la grande variété structurelle des polysaccharides pariétaux que nous ingérons. Au cours de ce travail, nous avons exploré, grâce à une approche de métagénomique fonctionnelle, l’organisation et les propriétés des systèmes enzymatiques bactériens impliqués dans la dégradation des glycanes de parois végétales dans l’intestin humain.En premier lieu, nous avons cherché à déterminer si les bactéries de la muqueuse iléale étaient capables de dégrader les fibres pariétales dans un contexte sain. Cette fonction étant généralement décrite pour le microbiote colique par extrapolation de travaux menés à partir de selles humaines, nos connaissances de la dégradation des fibres dans la partie haute du tractus digestif sont donc très limitées. Un total de 20 000 clones issus du métagénome bactérien d’une partie saine de la muqueuse iléale d’un individu a été criblé pour des activités de dégradation de la carboxymethylcellulose et du xylane, deux substrats modèles des polysaccharides pariétaux. Douze clones métagénomiques positifs nous ont permis de mettre en évidence un arsenal de gènes bactériens codant pour des GH et d’autres protéines impliquées dans le métabolisme des fibres alimentaires dont certains organisés en PUL (Polysaccharide Utilization Loci), des clusters de gènes spécialisés dans la dégradation des polysaccharides complexes. Ces gènes proviennent de chromosomes bactériens assignés au genre Bacteroides ou à des espèces de Clostridiales, et codent pour des enzymes capables de dégrader également des β-glucanes à liaisons mixtes. L’étude de la prévalence de ces gènes dans les métagénomes de référence indique que plusieurs d’entre eux proviendraient de souches bactériennes plutôt spécifiques de la muqueuse iléale. De plus, certaines enzymes présentent des propriétés inédites potentiellement intéressantes dans le domaine biotechnologique. Nos recherches ont donc permis de revisiter la fonction fibrolytique du microbiote intestinal chez l’Homme et de proposer une localisation de cette fonction dès l’intestin grêle.Dans un second temps, en utilisant une approche méthodologique similaire, nous avons étudié la capacité du microbiote fécal d’un individu obèse à dégrader des polysaccharides pariétaux complexes, en général moins consommés par les individus obèses. Au total, nous avons identifié 50 clones appartenant à 14 espèces bactériennes des phyla suivants : Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes et Actinobacteria. Les inserts métagénomiques portent des gènes codant pour différentes familles de GH, impliquées dans la dégradation des polysaccharides d’intérêt. Les premières analyses de la prévalence de ces gènes chez plus d’une centaine d’individus (obèses ou non), par interrogations des catalogues de gènes microbiens de référence, suggèrent des associations avec le statut phénotypique « obèse ». / Among the crucial functions of the intestinal microbiota, extracting energy from food such as dietary fibres is of major importance. Facing the huge diversity of incoming complex carbohydrates, the fibrolytic bacteria synthesize a set of diversified Carbohydrate-Active Enzymes (CAZymes) including Glycoside Hydrolases (GH) that specifically disrupt complex polysaccharides. Here, using functional metagenomic approaches, we explored the organization and properties of bacterial enzymatic systems involved in the breakdown of plant cell wall (PCW) glycans in the intestinal tract.Firstly, we investigated the capacity of the microbiota associated to the human ileum mucosa to degrade complex non-starch polysaccharides in a healthy context. This function has never been investigated in this part of the intestine, but it has been rather associated to microorganisms inhabiting the colon, due to more accessible fecal samples. Using a fosmid library derived from a healthy part of the human ileal mucosa, we screened 20,000 metagenomic clones for their activities against carboxymethylcellulose and xylan chosen as models of the major PCW polysaccharides from dietary fibres. Twelve positive clones revealed a broad range of CAZyme encoding genes from Bacteroides to Clostridiales species, as well as Polysaccharide Utilization Loci (PUL). Functional GH genes were identified and break-down products examined from different polysaccharides including mixed-linkage β-glucans. Revealed CAZymes and PUL were also examined for their prevalence in human gut microbiomes. Part of them belongs to unidentified strains rather specifically established in the ileum. Others were enzymes unclassified in identified GH families or with original properties addressing novel candidates for biotechnological applications. Thus, we evidenced for the first time that the ileal mucosa associated-microbiota encompasses the enzymatic potential for PCW complex polysaccharide degradation that might start in the small intestine.In a second time, by using the same methodology, we harvested the enzymatic capacities of the fecal microbiota from an obese person to disrupt complex polysaccharides from dietary fibres usually consumed in lower quantity in obese people. This study aimed at examining the links between genes encoding enzymes specifically dedicated to PCW complex carbohydrates and the obese phenotypic status using reference microbial gene catalogs. We screened a fecal metagenomic library from an obese individual on representative PCW substrates and identified 50 clones belonging to 14 different species from the Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes and Actinobacteria phyla. The metagenomic inserts harbor genes encoding enzymes from GH families specific from complex carbohydrate degradation. First querying of the prevalence of these genes in hundreds individuals (obese and control), using catalogs of reference microbial genes, suggest associations with the "obese" phenotypic status.

La maladie alcoolique du foie (MAF) regroupe l’ensemble des lésions qui apparaissent suite à une consommation excessive et chronique d’alcool. A consommation d’alcool égale, les patients n’évolueront pas tous vers les formes sévères de la maladie. Le microbiote intestinal est un cofacteur déterminant dans la sévérité de la MAF. Parmi les métabolites fécaux entre des souris recevant le microbiote intestinal de patients avec des lésions sévères ou non, les acides biliaires ont été identifiés comme les plus discriminants. Le récepteur aux acides biliaires TGR5, exprimé sur les cellules de Kupffer, favorise leur profil anti-inflammatoire.Nous avons évalué l’impact du récepteur TGR5 dans la MAF chez des souris déficientes pour ce récepteur. La déficience en TGR5 aggrave la MAF, sans passer par une modulation de la cellule de Kupffer. C’est en fait le microbiote intestinal qui est impacté chez les souris déficientes pour TGR5, et qui médie cette aggravation.Par ailleurs, afin de moduler le microbiote intestinal au cours de la MAF, nous avons évalué le rôle de la pectine, qui favorise la croissance de certaines bactéries et peut chélater les acides biliaires. Malgré ses propriétés chélatantes, ce sont bien les modifications du microbiote intestinal induites par la pectine qui jouent un rôle protecteur et curatif dans la MAF.Ces différentes études devraient permettre d’identifier des cibles thérapeutiques potentiellement applicables chez des patients alcooliques et basées sur la modulation du microbiote intestinal. / Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) includes all the liver injuries occurring as a result of excessive and chronic alcohol consumption. Nevertheless, among heavy drinker, only a subset of individuals will develop severe liver injury. Intestinal microbiota was identified as a major player in the mechanisms involved in ALD. Moreover, bile acids were the most discriminant faecal metabolites between mice with or without liver injury. The bile acids receptor TGR5, which is expressed on Kupffer cells, promotes their anti-inflammatory profile.We assessed the role of bile acids receptor TGR5 in ALD using TGR5-deficient mice. TGR5-deficiency worsens ALD, but without modulating the Kupffer cells profile. However, intestinal microbiota is impaired in TGR5-deficient mice, and this is responsible for ALD worsening.Furthermore, in order to modulate the intestinal microbiota during ALD, we assessed the role of pectin, which is known to promote the growth of certain bacteria and that is a bile acids sequestrant. Despite its sequestrant properties, pectin-induced changes in intestinal microbiota play a protective and curative role in ALD.These studies will allow the identification of new therapeutic targets that could be used for alcoholic patients, using intestinal microbiota modulation.

Insulin resistance and obesity are major public health concerns. The impact of diet and genetics on insulin resistance and obesity is well accepted. Additionally, the gut microbiota has been shown to influence obesity and metabolic disorders. However, much remains to be understood about the role of gut microbiota in the development of insulin resistance and obesity. We utilized a mouse model lacking PAS kinase, a protein involved in cellular metabolism, in order to better understand the relationship between diet, genetics and the gut microbiota. Previous research has shown that mice lacking PAS kinase were protected from the effects of a high fat diet, gaining less weight and showing a better response to insulin. Surprisingly, when PAS-kinase deficient mice were placed on a western-style, high fat, high sugar (HFHS) diet, they became obese and had an impaired response to insulin, much like wild type mice on the same diet. Mutant mice did, however, show more resistance to the effects of the unhealthy diet in one aspect-they maintained normal levels of claudin-1 in the colon, suggesting that they were less likely to develop excessive gut permeability (leaky gut). While significant differences in gut microbial composition were seen in response to the HFHS diet, with shifts in the ratio of Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes and increases in the levels of Actinobacteria, none of the differences correlated with genotype. Unexpectedly, however, within the mice on the HFHS diet and regardless of genotype, the composition of the gut microbiota diverged into two clusters. The mice in one cluster showed more resistance to obesity and their glucose response was like that of wild type mice on a healthy normal chow diet (NCD), while mice in the other cluster showed more weight gain and impaired glucose response. No similar gut microbiota divergence occurred in mice on the NCD, suggesting that the HFHS diet made mice vulnerable to (but did not cause) the development of a harmful gut microbiota, whereas the healthy NCD protected against spontaneous harmful shifts in the composition of the gut microbiota.

Au cours des dernières années, l’immunothérapie a révolutionné le paysage en oncologie. L’anti-CTLA-4 a montré son efficacité sur la survie globale des patients atteints de mélanome métastatique. Cependant, ce traitement présente des limites à son utilisation telles que l'efficacité clinique obtenu chez seulement 20% des patients et la survenue fréquente de colites pouvant être sévères. La recherche de biomarqueurs prédictifs de réponse clinique et/ou de développement de toxicité devient maintenant un enjeu majeur pour sélectionner les patients pouvant avoir un bénéfice à l’utilisation de ces traitements. En partant de l’observation que les colites induites par l’anti-CTLA-4 présentent des similitudes avec les maladies inflammatoires chroniques de l'intestin, nous avons émis l’hypothèse de l’existence d’un microbiote intestinal associé à une dysrégulation du système immunitaire pouvant prédire la réponse clinique et/ou la survenue d’une colite induite par l’anti-CTLA-4. Nous avons montré dans une cohorte de patients atteints de mélanome métastatique et traités par ipilimumab, qu'un microbiote intestinal enrichi en Faecalibacterium et autres Firmicutes est associé à une meilleure survie globale et sans progression ainsi qu'un risque accru de développer une colite. Les patients avec une flore enrichie en Firmicutes présentent également après traitement par ipilimumab, une activation lymphocytaire plus efficace. Par la suite, nous nous sommes intéressés aux métabolites issus du microbiote fécal et leur implication dans la réponse à l'anti-CTLA-4. Le butyrate est le principal métabolite produit par les Firmicutes. Nous avons observé chez la souris, une inhibition de l'efficacité anti-tumorale de l'anti-CTLA-4 lorsqu'elles étaient supplémentées en butyrate. In vivo, nous avons montré que le butyrate inhibe la surexpression sur les cellules dendritiques, des molécules CD80 et CD86 (molécules B7) induite par l'anti-CTLA-4. Cette immaturité des cellules dendritiques entraine un défaut d'activation des lymphocytes T spécifiques d'antigènes dépendant de l'axe CD28/B7 réduisant ainsi l'efficacité anti-tumorale. Chez l'Homme, nous avons valider cette hypothèse en montrant qu'une concentration sérique élevée en butyrate est associée à une diminution de la survie globale et sans progression comparativement aux patients avec un faible niveau de butyrate sérique.Ces travaux mettent en évidence le lien entre la composition du microbiote et les réponses immunologiques au blocage du CTLA-4. Ils apportent une explication sur un lien indirect via le butyrate entre la composition du microbiote intestinal et la réponse anti-tumorale aux immunothérapies. / In the last years, immunotherapy has revolutionized the landscape in oncology. The efficacy of anti-CTLA-4 has been demonstrated by improving overall survival of patients with metastatic melanoma. However, this treatment has limitations to its use such as the clinical efficacy obtained in only 20% of patients and the high incidence of severe colitis. Predictive biomarkers of clinical response and / or toxicity development are mandatory for a better selection of patients who will benefit from this treatment. Based on the observation that anti-CTLA-4-induced colitis has similarities with inflammatory bowel disease, we hypothesized that the gut microbiota associated with dysregulation of the immune system may predict the clinical response and / or occurrence of anti-CTLA-4-induced colitis.In a cohort of patients with metastatic melanoma treated with ipilimumab, we have shown that a gut microbiota enriched with Faecalibacterium and other Firmicutes is associated with a better of overall and progression-free survival as well as an increased risk of developing colitis. Firmicutes-driven microbiota is also associated with an improvement in lymphocyte T activation after ipilimumab treatment. Subsequently, we were interested in microbial metabolites and their involvement in the clinical response to anti-CTLA-4. Butyrate is the main metabolite produced by the Firmicutes. In mice, we observed an inhibition of anti-tumor effect of anti-CTLA-4 in butyrate-supplemented mice. In vivo, we have shown that butyrate inhibits the overexpression on dendritic cells, of CD80 and CD86 molecules (B7molecules) induced by anti-CTLA-4. This immaturity of the dendritic cells leads to a poor signaling of CD28 / B7 axis and activation of antigen-specific T-cells, thereby reducing anti-tumor efficacy. In humans, we validated this hypothesis by showing that a high serum concentration of butyrate is associated with decreased overall and progression-free survival compared to patients with low serum butyrate levels.This studie highlights the link between the composition of gut microbiota and the immunological responses to CTLA-4 blockade. They provide an explanation of an indirect link via butyrate, between the composition of the gut microbiota and the anti-tumor response to immunotherapies.

Les douleurs abdominales chroniques, souvent associées à une hypersensibilité viscérale d’origine colique (HSVC), sont l’un des symptômes majeurs constatés lors du syndrome de l’intestin irritable (SII). Le SII est une colopathie chronique fonctionnelle touchant environ 11% de la population mondiale et altérant significativement la qualité de vie des patients. L’étiologie multifactorielle de cette pathologie rend la physiopathologie complexe. Les gastroentérites infectieuses ont été décrites comme l’un des facteurs de risque dans le développement du SII-post-infectieux (SII-PI). Le SII-PI survient en effet dans 4 à 31% des cas suite à une gastroentérite aigüe d’origine bactérienne, virale ou parasitaire. Ces infections peuvent avoir de nombreuses répercussions et en particulier sur l’intégrité de la barrière épithéliale intestinale, le système immunitaire ou encore sur le microbiote intestinal. Par ailleurs, suite à une infection parasitaire, le risque de développer un SII est de 40% contre seulement 14% suite à une infection bactérienne.Blastocystis est le parasite intestinal le plus fréquemment retrouvé chez l’Homme. Néanmoins, malgré de récentes études épidémiologiques rapportant une plus forte prévalence de ce parasite chez les patients atteints de SII, son rôle en santé humaine reste débattu. De plus, d’autres études rapportent que les individus porteurs de ce parasite présentent des douleurs abdominales et sont atteints d’une dysbiose intestinale. Actuellement, l’absence d’un modèle animal d’infection par Blastocystis reproductible ne permet pas d’étudier les mécanismes physiopathologiques liés à l’infection et donc d’explorer la contribution éventuelle de ce parasite dans le SII.Les objectifs de ce travail de thèse étaient tout d’abord de mettre en place un modèle murin d’infection expérimentale par Blastocystis pour dans un deuxième temps évaluer si ce parasite est capable d’induire une HSVC et une dysbiose intestinale avec l’objectif d’établir un nouveau modèle de SII d’origine infectieuse chez le rat. Pour répondre au premier objectif, le pouvoir infectieux de différents sous-types et différentes formes du parasite (formes vacuolaires ou kystes), isolés de cultures axéniques ou purifiés à partir de selles de patients et d’animaux a été évalué chez des animaux de laboratoire (rats et souris). Nous avons ainsi réussi à établir un modèle reproductible d’infection chronique par Blastocystis chez le rat de laboratoire à l’aide de kystes purifiés à partir de selles humaines.L’utilisation de ce modèle in vivo, nous a permis de mettre en évidence que le sous-type 4 (ST4) de Blastocystis induit une HSVC sans origine inflammatoire chez les rats expérimentalement infectés. De plus, les animaux développent un comportement type anxio-dépressif corrélé à l’HSVC. La dysbiose intestinale associée à l’infection se caractérise par une augmentation de la richesse bactérienne et une diminution du ratio Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes. Par ailleurs, nous avons corrélé l’HSVC à l’augmentation de l’abondance relative du genre Bacteroides et la diminution de l’abondance relative de la famille des Clostridiaceae, bactéries productrices d’acides gras à chaine courte (AGCC). Une diminution des taux d’AGCC fécaux a d’ailleurs été constatée chez les rats infectés. De plus, nous avons mis en évidence une augmentation de l’activité de protéases à sérine dans les fèces des animaux infectés pouvant expliquer l’HSVC.Ces données suggèrent qu’une infection gastro-intestinale par Blastocystis serait associée à une hypersensibilité viscérale d’origine colique (HSVC) et à un déséquilibre de la flore intestinale (dysbiose). Ainsi, ce nouveau modèle d’infection pourrait être un bon modèle de SII d’origine infectieuse et pourrait donc contribuer à un meilleur diagnostic et au développement de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques pour des pathologies chroniques de l’intestin chez certains individus. / Chronic abdominal pain often associated with colonic hypersensitivity (CHS) is one of the major symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). IBS is a functional chronic disorder affecting ~11% of worldwide population and disturbing patients’ quality of life. Etiology is multifactorial and thus pathophysiology is complex and remains poorly understood. Infectious gastroenteritis has been described as one of the risk factors for development of post-infectious IBS (PI-IBS). PI-IBS can occur in 4-31% of patients following acute gastroenteritis of bacterial, viral or parasitic origin. Numerous studies support a role for pathogen-mediated modifications in the resident intestinal microbiota, epithelial barrier integrity and immune activation in PI-IBS. Interestingly, the risk of IBS is highest with protozoal enteritis, with ~40% of individuals developing IBS against ~14% following bacterial infection. Blastocystis is the most common intestinal parasite found in human intestinal tract. Nevertheless, clinical relevance remains controversial, despite recent epidemiological studies showing a higher prevalence of this parasite in IBS patients. Interestingly, studies report that individuals carrying Blastocystis display abdominal pain and intestinal dysbiosis. Currently, the lack of reproducible animal model of Blastocystis infection does not allow to study the pathological mechanisms related to infection and thus to explore the potential contribution of this parasite in IBS.The aims of this study were first to develop a murine model of Blastocystis infection and then to investigate whether this parasite could lead to the development of intestinal dysbiosis associated CHS with the aim of developing a new PI-IBS rat model.The first aim was to evaluate the infectivity of different parasitic subtypes and stages (vacuolar and cystic forms) isolated from axenic cultures or purified from human or animal feces, into laboratory animals (rats and mice). Interestingly, we succeeded in the development of a reproducible model of chronic infection by Blastocystis in laboratory rats using cysts purified from human stool.Using this animal model, we found that Blastocystis ST4 induced non inflammatory CHS in infected rats. In addition infected rats developed anxiety- and depressive-like behavior correlated with CHS. Infection associated intestinal dysbiosis was characterized by increased bacterial richness and decreased Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio. Interestingly, we correlated CHS with the increase in the relative abundance of genus Bacteroides and the decrease in the relative abundance of the family Clostridiaceae, some bacteria producing Short Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs). Indeed, fecal SCFAs levels were decreased in infected rats. These decreases were correlated with the relative abundance of genus Oscillospira which was also described increased in Blastocystis individual carriers. In addition, we have demonstrated an increase in fecal serine protease activity in infected animals that may explain development of CHS.These data suggest that a gastrointestinal infection with Blastocystis may be associated with the establishment of intestinal dysbiosis associated CHS. Thus, this new infectious model could be a good model of PI-IBS and could therefore contribute to a better diagnosis and development of new therapeutic strategies for chronic bowel diseases.

Grâce aux avancées de la technologie et nouvelles stratégies OMICS, de nombreuses études se sont intéressées au microbiote vaginal ces dernières années. Elles ont révélé l'impact de ce dernier sur la santé de la femme. En effet, un déséquilibre de la flore vaginale la rend vulnérable, la prédisposant à la vaginose bactérienne ainsi qu’à des complications gynéco-obstétricales sévères. La pathogénèse de la vaginose reste encore méconnue et le traitement classique par antibiothérapie échoue dans plus de 50% des cas. En analysant 50 prélèvements vaginaux provenant de patientes atteintes de vaginose et de femmes saines vivant en France et au Sénégal, nous avons constaté une plus grande diversité bactérienne chez les patientes par rapport aux témoins avec l'augmentation d'espèces telles que Gardnerella vaginalis, Atopobium vaginae ainsi que les procaryotes sensibles à l'oxygène, y compris les Cocci anaérobies à Gram-positif et les Prevotella. Les femmes saines renfermaient plus d’espèces de Lactobacillaceae et de Proteobacteria dans leurs flores. La combinaison de la métagénomique et la culturomique a permis d’identifier un complexe de 11 espèces/genres bactériens associés à la vaginose. L’utilisation de la culturomique a permis d’accroître le répertoire des bactéries humaines avec l’isolement de 27 nouvelles espèces. Le faible taux de recouvrement entre les données de métagénomique et celles de culturomique montre la nécessité de persévérer dans l’isolement des bactéries par culturomique. L’obtention d'isolats permettra d'explorer in vitro les compétitions entre les bactéries et pourrait servir également de matière première pour développer un traitement par bactériothérapie / Over the last decades, thanks to the technologic progresses including advanced molecular techniques and new OMICS strategies, many studies have focused on the vaginal microbiota. Thus, revealing the impact of the vaginal flora on women health. Indeed, the disruption of the vaginal bacterial community makes it prone to bacterial vaginosis and severe obstetrical and gynecological disorders. The pathogenesis of bacterial vaginosis is still unknown, and relapses are very frequent. Conventional treatment with antibiotic therapy fails in more than 50% of cases. The analysis of 50 vaginal samples from bacterial vaginosis patients and healthy women living in France and Senegal, showed a higher bacterial diversity in patients compared to controls with the increase of species such as Gardnerella vaginalis, Atopobium vaginae as well as oxygen-sensitive prokaryotes including Gram-positive anaerobic cocci, and Prevotella spp. Healthy women harbored more Lactobacillaceae species and Proteobacteria in their microbiota. The combination of metagenomics and culturomics has allowed the identification of a complex of 11 bacterial species/genera associated with bacterial vaginosis. The use of the culturomics approach has extended the repertoire of human-associated bacteria, with the isolation of 27 new bacterial species. The low range overlap between metagenomic and culturomics data indicates the need to continue the isolation of bacteria by culturomics. Obtaining isolates will make it possible to explore in vitro the competitions between the bacteria but can also be used as primary material for the development new treatments by bacteriotherapy

Microbiota becomes one of the most important subjects in biological research and numerous studies revealed that microbiota plays a broad spectrum of essential roles in different organisms. This master thesis focuses on the bacterial part of microbiota contained in mucosal tissues of wild house mice (Mus musculus musculus). Male and female samples were collected by nasal and oral cavity lavages, vaginal mucosa lavages and from urine and stool. We aimed to detect quantitative, qualitative and sex-specific differences in bacterial populations between mucosal tissues with particular focus on bacterial cycling in vaginal mucosa during the estrous cycles. Bacterial abundances were estimated by qPCR whilst bacterial diversity was detected by targeted metagenomic sequencing of the hypervariable region of the 16S rRNA gene. Significant differences were detected in bacterial abundances and alpha diversity between particular mucosal tissues. Stool samples contained the highest number of bacteria, while samples from the nasal mucosa and urine contained low amount of bacteria. The highest alpha diversity was discovered in stool samples, the least alpha diversity was found in the urine. Mucosal tissues also varied based on the bacterial composition on the level of particular genera. Detailed analysis of estrous cycles...

Background: Idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and food-responsive diarrhea (FRD) are common categories of chronic inflammatory enteropathy (CIE) in dogs. The intestinal microbiota is considered a major contributing factor to the pathogenesis of IBD. Intestinal dysbiosis has been identified in dogs with IBD, but only little information is available on differences in the mucosal microbiota of dogs diagnosed with IBD and FRD. In humans, dyslipidemia has also been described in patients with IBD. However, studies on the lipid profile in dogs with IBD or FRD are currently lacking. Objectives: This is the first study to (1) compare the intestinal mucosal microbiota of dogs with IBD and FRD in the duodenum and the colon, (2) evaluate differences in the mucosal microbiota of each dog before and after the induction phase of treatment, and (3) evaluate the systemic phospholipid profile of dogs with IBD or FRD also both prior to and after the induction phase of treatment. Materials and Methods: Duodenal and colonic mucosal biopsies from 24 dogs with CIE (15 FRD, 9 IBD) and EDTA-plasma and whole blood from 32 dogs (16 FRD, 16 IBD) were retrieved from a former study on canine CIE. All client-owned dogs were prospectively enrolled in the study. All dogs received a standardized diagnostic work-up and treatment including a dietary trial. Dogs that responded to the elimination diet within 14 days were classified as FRD; the remaining dogs requiring additional immunosuppressant treatment were classified as IBD. Biopsy specimens of duodenum and colon were obtained endoscopically both before and after standard therapy. DNA was extracted from these biopsies and the intestinal mucosal microbiota of the duodenum and colon were evaluated by Illumina sequencing of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene. The phospholipids in whole blood and EDTA plasma, collected both before and after treatment, were analyzed by hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC). Differences in the composition were statistically assessed by alpha diversity indices, principal coordinate analysis, analysis of similarities (ANOSIM) and linear discriminant (LDA) analysis effect size (LEfSe) for the microbiota and by principal component analysis (PCA), analysis of variance (ANOVA) and random forest analysis for the phospholipid profile. Results: All differences in the microbial composition and phospholipid profile described below are statistically confirmed with significance set at p-value < 0.05 or LDA score > 2.0. No difference in the global bacterial composition was identified neither between the two disease groups of dogs nor with the treatment status. However, abundances of several bacterial taxa varied between disease groups and also with the treatment status. When comparing disease groups, an unclassified genus of Neisseriaceae was more abundant in the duodenum in the IBD group, whereas Bilophila spp. occurred more frequently in the duodenum of the FRD group. Comparison before and after treatment revealed Enterococcus spp., Corynebacterium spp. and Proteobacteria to be enriched in the duodenum of FRD dogs before treatment. Bacteroides spp. was more abundant in the colon in the FRD group post-treatment. In the IBD dogs, Unclassified_Neisseriaceae was more abundant in the duodenum and mainly Proteobacteria (Burkholderia spp., Citrobacter spp.) in the colon prior to treatment. Bacteroides spp. was significantly more abundant in the colon after treatment. The phospholipidome differed dependent on the type of specimen (whole blood vs. plasma). In addition, treatment and disease severity presented the most significant factors determining the variance of the phospholipid profile. An increase in lysolipids and a significant shift of the phosphatidylcholine (PC) species from PC 38:4 (18:0 / 20:4) to mainly lysophosphatidylcholine 18:0 was observed after treatment. Conclusions: Some differences in individual bacterial taxa were identified both between disease groups of dogs and with regard to treatment status. The role of these bacterial groups in the pathogenesis of IBD and FRD is still unknown. However, Bacteroides spp. might be of importance, and this species could potentially serve as marker of treatment response. Furthermore, significant variances were identified in the phospholipid profiles of dogs with IBD and FRD, which were particularly associated with the type of specimen used, disease severity, and treatment status. These alterations in the phospholipid profile could potentially aid in monitoring the response to treatment. Subsequently, specific modulation of the intestinal microbiota and the phospholipid profile might also present novel therapeutic strategies in dogs with CIE.