Le domaine de recherche concerne l’endommagement par cavitation des élastomères exposés à de fortes pressions de gaz diffusant. Ce phénomène résulte de l’expansion locale du gaz préalablement absorbé, lorsque la désorption hors du polymère est trop lente par rapport au chargement imposé. Dans le cas de l’hydrogène qui nous intéresse ici, l’enjeu est le développement de matériaux polymères performants pour les structures de stockage et de distribution d’hydrogène gazeux hyperbare. En conditions d’usage, ces matériaux sont exposés à de fortes pressions d’hydrogène qui diffuse en leur sein et génèrent ensuite de forts endommagements lorsque la pression hydrostatique est relâchée. Les études de laboratoire sur ce sujet restent peu nombreuses, a fortiori sous environnement hydrogène. Sur le plan expérimental, ceci s’explique par la délicate manipulation de l’hydrogène et par le contexte des fortes pressions. Sur le plan de la simulation numérique, un verrou important est lié aux couplages forts entre diffusion et mécanique dans la résolution de l’équilibre de la cavité à chaque instant de son évolution. Cette thèse vise à mieux comprendre le mécanisme élémentaire de formation, puis de croissance et de coalescence des cavités, isolées ou en proche voisinage. Dans ce dernier cas, une éventuelle interaction doit effectivement être caractérisée pour éclairer la coalescence et la transition vers des fissures macroscopiques. Le travail a été mené sur série d’Ethylène Propylène Diène Monomer (EPDM) non-renforcés, avec une densité de points de réticulation variable, exposés à des pressions allant jusqu’à 30 MPa. Le volet expérimental s'appuie sur deux des techniques expérimentales in situ les plus récentes. La diffusion des rayons X aux petits angles (SAXS) vise à caractériser les hétérogénéités du système réseau élastomère – hydrogène à l'échelle submicronique, et éventuellement à détecter les premiers stades de cavitation. Dans la gamme des faibles pressions accessible sous environnement hydrogène, les hétérogénéités ne sont pas assez marquées pour définir plus qu'une distance de corrélation, qui varie très peu comparativement au matériau non exposé. Après exposition à une pression plus élevée (30 MPa), une augmentation de la distance de corrélation est observée, révélant une modification de l'hétérogénéité de la matrice, irréversible même après désorption complète de l'échantillon. À l’échelle micronique, des expériences de tomographie X in-situ (sous des pressions allant jusqu’à 12 MPa) fournissent des vues 3D résolues en temps des cavités, pendant et après décompression. Ces expériences ont permis de mieux comprendre la cinétique de croissance des cavités dans différentes conditions aux limites locales (dans le volume de l’échantillon, à proximité d'autres cavités, près d'une surface libre) et de les interpréter en regard des propriétés de diffusion de l'échantillon lui-même. Plusieurs populations de cavités, présentant des comportements différents, ont ainsi pu être distinguées en fonction de leur distance à la surface libre de l'échantillon, en lien avec la désorption globale de l’échantillon. Comparativement à cet effet de bord libre, la présence d’une autre cavité en proche voisinage (i.e. à une distance bord à bord supérieure ou égale à 30μm) n’a qu’une influence minime. Les résultats suggèrent que la croissance de la cavité est un processus très local. Dans un contexte diffuso-mécanique fortement couplé, l’interprétation des mécanismes se heurte à l’impossibilité d’accéder expérimentalement aux champs mécaniques et de concentration de gaz. Les codes éléments finis existants rencontrent des problèmes de convergence que le code interne Foxtrot développé à l’Institut Pprime tente de surmonter. Dans une dernière partie exploratoire de la thèse, il a été mis à profit pour comparer les gradients générés par une paire de cavités comparativement à une cavité isolée. / The optimum design and formulation of seals used in hydrogen transport system is crucial for the purposes of safety of operation and well as economic sustainability of hydrogen as energy carrier. The exposure of the sealing materials to hydrogen and subsequent decompression causes cavitation damage. The studies so far on this subject have been few due to the strong limitations arising from the safety issues related to hydrogen testing in laboratory conditions. This study addresses the cavitation in Ethylene Propylene Diene Rubber (EPDM) due to pressure release after exposure to high-pressure hydrogen up to 30 MPa. Three different unfilled EPDM with variable cross-link density were investigated. The study was based on some of the newest in-situ experimental techniques which allow a time-resolved tracking of the evolution of damage. On one side, in-situ SAXS (Small Angle X-ray Scattering) tests of hydrogen-exposed EPDM were aimed at the characterisation of EPDM at submicron scale as a function of network heterogeneity and for tracking the possible onset of distinguishable cavities. At the low pressure range accessible with the device, heterogeneities were not marked enough to define more than a correlation length that was significantly changed compared the unexposed material, whatever the cross-link density. After the exposure at higher pressure (30 MPa) a change in correlation length was observed corresponding to the change in heterogeneity of the matrix which was found to be non-reversible even after full desorption of the sample. At a higher scale, in-situ X-ray tomography was used to provide time-resolved 3D views of damage during and after hydrogen pressure release. These experiments provided insight into the growth kinetics of cavities in different local boundary conditions (within the bulk, close to other cavities, close to a free surface) correlated with the diffusion characteristics of the sample itself. Classification of cavities as bulk and edges cavities was possible with respect with different kinetics depending on their proximity to the free surface of the sample. This could be correlated with the diffusion characteristics of the material. The dependence of kinetics of cavities on the proximity of another cavity was found to be trivial at the scale investigated (above 30 μm between cavity borders) suggesting that growth is a very local process. The previous studies have clarified that the cavitation in rubber is a coupled diffuso-mechanical phenomenon and so far, the numerical tools available have not addressed the problem as such. Therefore, the development of a numerical tool aimed at solving such coupled problems has also been addressed in the present work. This numerical tool called Foxtrot, developed at Institut PPRIME, is in the early stages of development but is a crucial step towards the more realistic simulation of this phenomenon of cavitation. In this fully coupled diffuso-mechanical context, the interpretation of mechanisms is highly limited by the lack of experimental access to the mechanical and gas content fields. Commercial Finite Element codes face convergence problems that the internal code developed at the Pprime Institute (Foxtrot) is trying to overcome. In the last exploratory part of the thesis, the code was used to as a step towards a more realistic simulation of the phenomenon. In particular, gradients around a pair of cavities were compared to those obtained around an isolated cavity.

La transformation de la biomasse végétale en composés simples pouvant servir comme monomères pour l’élaboration de nouveaux matériaux polymères susceptibles de se substituer à leurs homologues d’origine pétrochimique a été l’un des thèmes de recherche développés au cours des deux dernières décennies. c’est dans ce vaste contexte que s’inscrivent les travaux rapportés dans ce mémoire dont l’objectif était d’élaborer une nouvelle famille d’oligoesters aliphatiques en partant de monomères biosourcés et en intégrant dans leur structure des groupes sulfonés. Cette orientation est justifié par les trois considérations suivantes (i) cela constitue une contribution à la valorisation de la biomasse végétale (ii) la présence des unités sulfonés dans leur structure leur confère des propriétés physico-chimiques particulières favorisant leur utilisation dans divers secteurs industriels. (iii) Ces oligoesters peuvent être par la suite utilisés pour la préparation des composites à base de réseaux de poly (ester-uréthane) et de liquide ionique ayant des propriétés thermomécaniques potentiellement intéressantes et une grande tendance à la dégradation hydrolytique. / The research conducted in this thesis was achieved in the context of vegetal biomass valorization. It aims to develop a new family of aliphatic oligoesters from biobased monomers and incorporating into their structure sulfonated groups. This choice is justified by the following three considerations. (i) This is a contribution to the valorization of vegetal biomass. (ii) The presence of sulfonated units in the structure of this type of polymers gives them specific physicochemical properties favoring their use in various industrial sectors. (iii) These oligoesters can be subsequently used for the preparation of poly (ester-urethane) networks and ionic liquid-based composites with potentially interesting thermomechanical properties and a great tendency towards hydrolytic degradation.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(工学) / 甲第21963号 / 工博第4618号 / 新制||工||1720(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院工学研究科高分子化学専攻 / (主査)教授 山子 茂, 教授 辻井 敬亘, 教授 大内 誠 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Philosophy (Engineering) / Kyoto University / DGAM

No description available.

This work addresses the distribution of N-methylolacrylamide (NMA) units in crosslinking poly(vinyl acetate) (PVAc) adhesives. In this case, distribution refers to the three potential locations of polymerized NMA units in a latex: the water-phase, the surface of polymer particles, and the core of the polymer particles. The objective is to identify the distribution of NMA in three latices and to determine whether NMA distribution correlates with durability related performance. NMA distribution was studied via a series of variable temperature solution NMR experiments, while the durability-related performance was studied via mode I fracture mechanics tests. Studying the distribution of NMA required the use of isotopically labeled NMA. Both 15N-NMA and 13C, 15N-NMA were synthesized. Three NMA/vinyl acetate (VAc) latices were prepared. The NMA feed strategy was varied during each of the three emulsion copolymerizations. Latex characterization methods including differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), rheometry, particle size analysis, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used to study the three latices. The solution NMR method to identify NMA distribution was performed on untreated latices and on washed latices. Washing techniques included membrane dialysis and centrifugation. Results revealed that the three latices had different NMA distributions, and that the distributions were related to the expected differences in microstructure. Latex 3 had ~ 80% core-NMA, while Latex 2 had ~ 80% surface-NMA. Latex 1 had a high proportion of surface-NMA (~60%), but also had the highest proportion of water-phase NMA (~ 20%). This high proportion of water-phase NMA could be responsible for the unique morphology Latex 1 exhibited in SEM studies. Mode I opening fracture mechanics studies were used to study adhesive performance. Specimens were analyzed after exposure to accelerated aging treatments. Latex 2 and Latex 3 exhibited very similar results, despite having very different NMA distributions. All three latices showed good durability related performance. In Latex 2 and Latex 3, the critical strain energy release rates (Gc) after accelerated aging treatments were statistically the same as the Gc of the control specimens. The most interesting finding was that the Latex 1 Gc values were significantly higher after accelerated aging. Latex 1 also had the highest proportion of water-phase NMA. Bondline images and SEM micrographs both indicated that the integrity of Latex 1 was least affected by the accelerated aging treatments. / Ph. D.

Sulfonated poly(arylene ether sulfone)s as ion conductive copolymers have numerous potential applications. Membranes cast from these copolymers are desirable due to their good chemical and thermal stability, excellent mechanical strength, satisfactory conductivity, and excellent transport properties of water and ions. These copolymers can be used in a variety of topologies. Structure-property-performance relationships of these membranes as candidates for electrolysis of water for hydrogen production and for purification of water from dissolved ions have been studied. Linear and multiblock sulfonated poly(arylene ether sulfone)s are potential alternative candidates to Nafion membranes for hydrogen gas production via electrolysis of water. In this investigation, these copolymers were prepared from the direct polymerization of di-sulfonated and non-sulfonated comonomers with bisphenol monomers. In systematic investigations, a series of copolymers with modified properties were synthesized and characterized by changing the ratio of the sulfonated/non-sulfonated comonomers in each reaction. These copolymers were investigated in terms of mechanical stability, proton conductivity and H2 gas permeability at a range of temperatures and under fully hydrated conditions. A multiblock copolymer was synthesized and evaluated for its potential as membranes for electrolysis of water and for fuel cell applications. The multiblock copolymer contained some fluorinated repeat units in the hydrophobic blocks, and these were coupled with a fully disulfonated hydrophilic block prepared from 3,3'-disulfonate-4,4'-dichlorodiphenyl sulfone and biphenol. After annealing, the multiblock copolymer showed enhanced proton conductivity and a more ordered morphology in comparison to the random copolymer counterparts. At 90 oC and under fully hydrated conditions, improved proton conductivity and controlled H2 gas permeability was observed. Finally, the performance of the multiblock copolymer, which was measured as the ratio of proton conductivity to H2 gas permeability, was improved when compared to the state-of-the-art membrane, Nafion 212, by a factor of 3. In another systematic study, two series of random copolymers were synthesized and characterized, and then cast into membranes to evaluate for electrolysis of water. One series contained solely hydroquinone as the phenolic monomer, while the second series contained a mixture of resorcinol and hydroquinone as phenolic comonomers. The polymers that contained only the hydroquinone monomer showed exceptionally good mechanical properties due to the para-substituted comonomer in the composition of the polymer. In the resorcinol-hydroquinone series, gas permeability was constrained due to the presence of 25% of the meta-substituted comonomer incorporated into its structure. Low gas permeability and high proton conductivity at elevated temperatures were obtained for both the linear random and multiblock copolymers. Performance of these copolymers was superior to Nafion at elevated temperatures (80-95°C). In order to enhance the durability of these materials in their hydrated states at elevated temperatures, the surfaces of these copolymer films were treated with fluorine gas. In comparison with pristine non-fluorinated membranes, the modified membranes showed decreased water uptake and longer durability in Fenton's reagent. A series of linear and crosslinked copolymers were investigated with respect to their potential for use as membranes for desalination of water by electrodialysis and reverse osmosis. The crosslinked membranes were prepared by reacting controlled molecular weight, disulfonated oligomers that were terminated with meta-aminophenol with an epoxy reagent. The oligomers had systematically varied degrees of disulfonation and either 5000 or 10,000 Da controlled molecular weights. Membrane casting conditions were established to fabricate highly crosslinked systems with greater than 90% gel fractions. At such a high gel fraction, the water uptake of the crosslinked membranes was lower than that of the linear biphenol-based, disulfonated random copolymer with a similar IEC. Among these series of copolymers, it was shown that the crosslinked membranes cast from the oligomers with 50% degree of disulfonation and a molecular weight of 10,000 Da had the lowest salt permeability of 10-8 cm2/sec. For desalination applications, a comonomer was synthesized with one sulfonate substituent on 4,4'-dichlorodiphenyl sulfone. This new monosulfonated comonomer allows for even distribution of the ions on the linear copolymer backbone, and this may be important for controlling ion transport. Mechanical tests were conducted on the membranes while they were submerged in a water bath. The ultimate strength of a fully hydrated copolymer with an IEC of 1.36 meq/g was approximately 60 MPa with an elongation at break of 160%. Moreover, in a monovalent/divalent mixed salt solution, the monosulfonated linear copolymer exhibited a constant Na+ passage of less than 1.0%. / Ph. D. / Purification systems have become an increasingly important scientific and technological need for millions around who face water shortages and/or impure sources of potable water. In response, water purification and hydrogen gas production have been widely used to produce pure products from a variety of water sources. In general, current state-of-the-art methods in separation technologies feature two major drawbacks: they are energy intensive and costly processes. In response to the growing need for purified water or pure hydrogen gas for energy generation, polymeric materials are increasingly used in the form of membranes to produce a purer product and overcome the hindrances associated with current energy intensive and inefficient methods. These membranes serve as a barrier for unwanted species, while at the same time allowing the desired species to pass through. Under proper conditions, these purification or chemical processes would generate pure materials that can be used on demand. The chemistry of candidate polymeric materials is extremely important to design a membrane with desired properties. Therefore, the principal goals of this investigation were to synthesize polymers for use as membranes in three areas: 1) Electrolysis of water for ultra-pure hydrogen gas generation 2) Fuel cells applications for electricity generation, and 3) Desalination of water to provide drinking water. For each technology, a series of sulfonated poly(arylene ether sulfone) copolymers were synthesized and characterized. By applying different monomers or chemistries, a range of appropriate copolymers were synthesized whose characteristics varied in topology and architecture, depending on the desired application. Once these copolymers were synthesized, they were cast into membranes under proper established conditions. In addition, the structure-property-performance relationship of these sulfonated polysulfone membranes were further investigated to provide a direction for future studies.

The acid and base catalyzed simultaneous twin polymerization (STP) of various 2,2′-disubstituted 4H-1,3,2-benzodioxasiline derivatives 2a–d with 2,2′-spirobi[4H-1,3,2-benzodioxasiline] (1) are presented in this paper. The products are nanostructured ternary organic–inorganic hybrid materials consisting of a cross-linked organic polymer, silica and a disubstituted polysiloxane. It can be demonstrated whether and in which extent the copolymerization of the two inorganic fragments of 1 and 2 takes place among the STP and how the molar ratio of the two components determines the structure formation of the resulting hybrid material. Steric and electronic effects of the substituents at the silicon center of 2 on the molecular structure formation and the morphology of the resulting hybrid material were investigated by means of solid state CP MAS 29Si and 13C NMR spectroscopy as well as high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM). The mechanical properties (hardness and Young's modulus) of the hybrid materials were analyzed by means of nanoindentation measurements. / Dieser Beitrag ist aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.

L’objectif de cette thèse a consisté en la synthèse d’un polymère à empreinte moléculaire (MIP) permettant l’extraction du phosmet, un pesticide organophosphoré largement utilisé en oléiculture. La recherche du monomère fonctionnel (MF) disposant de la meilleure capacité à interagir de manière non-covalente avec le phosmet en présence du solvant porogène le plus approprié a été réalisée pour la toute première fois au moyen d’un capteur à acétylcholinestérase. Cette stratégie innovante a permis une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes cinétiques à l’œuvre lors de l’interaction MF-molécule cible. De par l’importance de son rôle dans la détermination de la structure d’un MIP, le choix d’un agent réticulant aux caractéristiques physico-chimiques adéquates a permis de sélectionner le meilleur MIP en s’appuyant sur l’étude des isothermes d’adsorption selon les modèles de Freundlich et Langmuir. La procédure d’extraction du phosmet selon la procédure MISPE (Molecularly Imprinted Solid Phase Extraction) a été effectuée par le biais d’une cartouche SPE dont la capacité a été évaluée à partir d’une solution standard. La validation du choix des réactifs de MIP sélectionnés a été confortée par la réalisation d’une expérience de réactivité croisée appliquée à une molécule analogue au phosmet. L’extraction du phosmet de l’huile d’olive a pu être effectuée avec succès selon un protocole d’extraction en flux inverse optimisé. Cette étude ouvre ainsi la voie à la recherche de nouvelles interactions MFs-molécules cibles au moyen de biocapteurs enzymatiques inhibant des composés toxiques tels que les herbicides, fongicides et autres pesticides. / The objective of this thesis has been the synthesis of a molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) for the extraction of phosmet, an organophosphorus pesticide widely used in olive growing. The search for the functional monomer (FM) having the best ability to interact non-covalently with phosmet in the presence of the most suitable pore-forming solvent was carried out for the first time by means of an acetylcholinesterase sensor. This innovative strategy allowed us to better understand the kinetic mechanisms of FM-template interaction. Because of the importance of its role in determining the structure of a MIP, the selection of a crosslinking agent with adequate physicochemical characteristics made it possible to select the best MIP, whose adsorption isotherms were studied according to Freundlich and Langmuir models. Extraction of phosmet using a Molecularly Imprinted Solid Phase Extraction (MISPE) procedure was carried out via an SPE cartridge, whose capacity was evaluated from a standard solution. The choice of reagents and experimental conditions were validated by carrying out selectivity assays using another organophosphorus insecticide. Extraction of phosmet from olive oil was successfully carried out according to an optimized reverse flow extraction protocol. This work opens new opportunities for studying new FM-template interactions by means of enzymatic biosensors capable of detecting other inhibitors such as herbicides, fungicides and other pesticides.

No presente trabalho foi realizado um estudo de alguns aspectos da reação de obtenção de dimetildiclorosilano a partir da reação entre silícios grau químico (SiGQ) ou de elevada pureza (99,999%) e cloreto de metila catalisada por cobre e promotores em reator de leito fluidizado. Foram estudados os efeitos da temperatura sobre o processo de ativação e sobre a reação com o fim de obter um valor aproximado da energia aparente de ativação para cada uma dessas etapas; o efeito do tamanho médio das partículas de silício e do catalisador sobre os parâmetros de desempenho da reação e o de contaminantes usuais do SiGQ, a saber Ca, Fe e Al, sobre silício de elevada pureza (99,999%). Uma discussão sobre o efeito de compensação característico da reação direta foi realizada sendo proposta uma explicação da origem desse efeito, que aparentemente se deve ao caracter anisotrópico da reação, e uma explicação complementar com relação ao papel dos promotores na reação. Os resultados mostraram que a energia aparente de ativação obtida por meio dos experimentos realizados neste estudo encontram-se em valores próximos ao normalmente encontrado na literatura. Aparentemente existe uma variação da seletividade com a variação do tamanho de partícula tanto do silício quanto do catalisador, que se deve ao grau de cobertura da superfície do silício pelo catalisador. Observou-se ainda que os parâmetros de desempenho se correlacionam melhor com a área geométrica do que com a área específica medida pelo método de adsorsão de N2 (BET). Os elementos Ca, Al e Fe, na forma que foram adicionados, mostraram algum efeito sobre os parâmetros de desempenho da reação, porém verificou-se que o efeito das impurezas é maior se estas estiverem presentes originalmente no silício. / Some important aspects of dimethyldichlorosilane direct synthesis from methyl chloride and both chemical grade silicon and high purity silicon (99.999%) catalyzed by copper and promoters in a fluidized bed reactor was studied. The effects of temperature on the activation process and on the reaction were studied to obtain an estimate of the apparent activation energy for each process step. The influence of average particle diameter of silicon and of catalyst and the effect of Ca, Al and Fe additions in the catalyst system were also evaluated. A discussion about the so-called isokinetic compensation behavior which is observed in the direct synthesis is presented. The proposed explanation about the origin of this phenomena is based on the anisotropic character of the reaction. A complementary explanation about the mechanism of promoters action was also proposed. The obtained values of apparent activation energies are within the range reported in the literature. Selectivity and activity showed some variation with both catalyst and silicon particle sizes. This behavior was explained in terms of silicon particle coverage by the catalyst system. The performance parameters show better correlation with the geometric area measured by laser diffraction than with the BET area obtained by N2 adsorption. The promoters Ca, Fe and Al have shown effect over the reaction, however these effects were more proeminent if they are originally present in silicon structure.

No presente trabalho foi realizado um estudo de alguns aspectos da reação de obtenção de dimetildiclorosilano a partir da reação entre silícios grau químico (SiGQ) ou de elevada pureza (99,999%) e cloreto de metila catalisada por cobre e promotores em reator de leito fluidizado. Foram estudados os efeitos da temperatura sobre o processo de ativação e sobre a reação com o fim de obter um valor aproximado da energia aparente de ativação para cada uma dessas etapas; o efeito do tamanho médio das partículas de silício e do catalisador sobre os parâmetros de desempenho da reação e o de contaminantes usuais do SiGQ, a saber Ca, Fe e Al, sobre silício de elevada pureza (99,999%). Uma discussão sobre o efeito de compensação característico da reação direta foi realizada sendo proposta uma explicação da origem desse efeito, que aparentemente se deve ao caracter anisotrópico da reação, e uma explicação complementar com relação ao papel dos promotores na reação. Os resultados mostraram que a energia aparente de ativação obtida por meio dos experimentos realizados neste estudo encontram-se em valores próximos ao normalmente encontrado na literatura. Aparentemente existe uma variação da seletividade com a variação do tamanho de partícula tanto do silício quanto do catalisador, que se deve ao grau de cobertura da superfície do silício pelo catalisador. Observou-se ainda que os parâmetros de desempenho se correlacionam melhor com a área geométrica do que com a área específica medida pelo método de adsorsão de N2 (BET). Os elementos Ca, Al e Fe, na forma que foram adicionados, mostraram algum efeito sobre os parâmetros de desempenho da reação, porém verificou-se que o efeito das impurezas é maior se estas estiverem presentes originalmente no silício. / Some important aspects of dimethyldichlorosilane direct synthesis from methyl chloride and both chemical grade silicon and high purity silicon (99.999%) catalyzed by copper and promoters in a fluidized bed reactor was studied. The effects of temperature on the activation process and on the reaction were studied to obtain an estimate of the apparent activation energy for each process step. The influence of average particle diameter of silicon and of catalyst and the effect of Ca, Al and Fe additions in the catalyst system were also evaluated. A discussion about the so-called isokinetic compensation behavior which is observed in the direct synthesis is presented. The proposed explanation about the origin of this phenomena is based on the anisotropic character of the reaction. A complementary explanation about the mechanism of promoters action was also proposed. The obtained values of apparent activation energies are within the range reported in the literature. Selectivity and activity showed some variation with both catalyst and silicon particle sizes. This behavior was explained in terms of silicon particle coverage by the catalyst system. The performance parameters show better correlation with the geometric area measured by laser diffraction than with the BET area obtained by N2 adsorption. The promoters Ca, Fe and Al have shown effect over the reaction, however these effects were more proeminent if they are originally present in silicon structure.