WN virus has spread for over 60 years creating endemic and epidemic areas throughout Africa, Asia, and Europe, affecting human, bird, and equine populations. Its 1999 appearance in New York shows the ability of the virus to cross barriers and travel great distances, emerging into new territories previously free of infection. Spreading much faster than expected, WN virus has infected thousands of birds, equine, and humans throughout the conterminous United States (US). Case and serological studies performed in the Eastern hemisphere prior to 1999 offer detailed descriptions of endemic and epidemic locations in regards to geography, land cover, land use, population, climate, and weather patterns. Based on the severity of WN activity within each study area, the patterns associated with these environmental factors allow for the identification of values associated with different levels of risk. We can then model the landscape of the disease within the US and identify areas of high risk for infection. State and county public health officials can use this model as a decision-making tool to allocate funding for disease prevention and control. Dynamic factors associated with increased transmission, such as above average temperature and precipitation, can be closely monitored and measures of prevention can be implemented when necessary. In turn, detailed information from higher resolution analyses can be documented to an online GIS (Geographic Information System) that would contribute to a global collaboration on outbreaks and prevention of disease. / Master of Science

Field studies were conducted in southwestern Virginia to determine the bionomics and ovipositional preferences of Culex restuans Theobald and Culex pipiens Linnaeus using ovitraps and gravid traps. Both species have been implicated as enzootic and epizootic vectors of West Nile virus (WNV) and these studies provide information on the relative abundance of gravid mosquitoes. Ovitraps were used in the summers of 2002 and 2003 to measure the oviposition activity of Culex mosquitoes, mainly Cx. restuans and Cx. pipiens. In 2002, 1,345 egg rafts were collected from 5 traps set at different locations in the New River Valley (NRV). Cx. restuans constituted 93.2% of the catch; the remainder was Cx. pipiens (6.7%) and Cx. salinarius (<1%). In 2003, 4 ovitraps were placed at each of 6 locations in the NRV. Of 9,794 egg rafts collected, Cx. restuans comprised 92.8%, Cx. pipiens 6.5%, and Cx. salinarius <1%. Oviposition patterns were similar in both years. Cx. restuans oviposition was detected about mid-May, and raft numbers were highest in late June and the middle of July and then showed a steady decline throughout the remainder of each season. Cx. pipiens oviposition activity began later in the season and gradually increased, reaching its peak in August. Although the number of egg rafts of Cx. restuans decreased in August and September while the number of Cx. pipiens egg rafts increased, a crossover in the relative abundance of the two species never occurred. In 2003, the attractiveness of four infusions (cow manure, straw, grass, and rabbit chow) were compared in oviposition traps. For Cx. restuans, the manure infusions collected more egg rafts than the other three infusions for the first four weeks, with two of the weeks showing significance. During week 1, the manure infusions collected significantly more egg rafts than straw (P<0.01), grass (P<0.01), and rabbit (P<0.001). During week 2, manure collected more than grass (P<0.05) and rabbit (P<0.01). The straw and grass infusions yielded the most egg rafts after week 2, and only three weeks showed any significance. When traps began to collect Cx. pipiens, the majority were collected in the straw and grass infusions. During week 6, the hay infusions had significantly more egg rafts when compared to manure (P<0.001) and rabbit infusions (P<0.001) and the grass infusions had significantly more when compared to manure (P<0.05) and rabbit (P<0.01). Week 9 also showed significance when the hay infusions collected significantly more egg rafts than manure and rabbit (P<0.01 and P<0.01, respectively). The attractiveness of the cow manure and straw infusions were also compared in gravid traps. Because it is difficult to accurately discriminate between Cx. pipiens and Cx. restuans that have been collected as adults in gravid traps, these collections were combined into Culex. More Culex mosquitoes were collected in the manure infusions for the first two weeks (P<0.05). No significant differences were found between the numbers of mosquitoes captured in the traps baited with the different infusions after the second week. The shift observed in oviposition preference for both types of traps may have been due to cooler temperatures in the early part of the season. The straw infusions were aged outdoors for 3 days prior to use, and a sufficient incubation temperature to generate the bacteria producing the attractant chemicals may not have been attained. In addition, the manure lagoon had been drawn down and the consistency of the remaining manure became much drier by this time. No chemicals were ever added to the lagoon, but the draw down may have affected the attractiveness of the manure. / Master of Science

BACKGROUND: Malaria in pregnant women continues to be a public health problem in India. The prevalence of malaria in pregnancy is particularly high in the tribal conflict areas of India such as Chhattisgarh. Pregnant women have less acquired immunity protecting them against malaria than non-pregnant women of child bearing age. The decreased immunity results in a much more severe presentation of malaria symptoms, and potential death of both mother and fetus during malaria in pregnancy. Recognizing the need for effective malaria interventions in pregnant women, global and national malaria prevention and treatment guidelines have been established. Practice of these guidelines has been found to be inadequate in the Asian Pacific Region. LITERATURE REVIEW FINDINGS: Qualitative studies on the knowledge, attitudes and practices of malaria interventions have demonstrated that meeting communities at their level of understanding is essential in circumventing malaria spread. In an effort to create a synergy between health care workers, national and global malaria control strategies and pregnant women, there is the need to identify pregnant women’s knowledge, attitudes and practices of malaria interventions. Currently, there is no data on the knowledge, attitudes and practices of pregnant women in the conflict districts of Chhattisgarh, India, where malaria prevalence and related symptoms have been identified to be significantly high. PROPOSED PROJECT: This study seeks to assess the knowledge, attitudes and practices of malaria prevention and treatment in pregnant women in the conflict areas of Chhattisgarh, India, using a cross-sectional qualitative research design. This study will highlight the understanding of malaria transmission, perceptions of cause, recognition of signs and symptoms, treatment-seeking behaviors, preventive measures and practices of pregnant women who visit the antenatal clinic and those who do not. CONCLUSION: If this study demonstrates knowledge and attitudes that favor customary or unproven methods of malaria interventions as shown in previous studies, then this may explain the present rate of MIP in these districts and hence the need for specific mediations for controlling and preventing malaria in this populace. SIGNIFICANCE: Findings from this study will help inform malaria education programs, health policies and practices that are tailored or targeted towards pregnant women in Chhattisgarh, India.

Introdução: As diversas armadilhas apresentam rendimento diferenciado na captura, havendo a necessidade de buscar instrumentos que amostrem porções representativas das populações de mosquitos. Levanta-se a hipótese de que as armadilhas Mosquito Magnet Independence e CDC com CO2+Lurex3 sejam mais eficazes na captura de culicídeos do que a armadilha CDC luminosa. Objetivos: Avaliar a eficácia das armadilhas Mosquito Magnet Independence e CDC+CO2+Lurex3, em relação à CDC-luminosa, para a captura de culicídeos adultos em área agrícola na Fazenda Experimental em Pariquera-Açu, Vale do Ribeira, São Paulo, Brasil. Material e Métodos: Capturas mensais, das 15h00 às 21h00, por meio do delineamento em quadrado latino 3X3, no período de dezembro/2010 a novembro/2011. Perfis de diversidade de Rényi e índices de riqueza, dominância, diversidade, equabilidade e similaridade foram estimados para cada armadilha para compará-las. Resultados: Capturou-se 6.055 de 70 espécies e 12 gêneros. A CDC-luminosa amostrou 990 indivíduos de 42 espécies e 10 gêneros,a CDC+CO2+lurex31.419 indivíduos em 41 espécies e 10 gêneros e a Mosquito Magnet 3151 indivíduos de 46 espécies e 11 gêneros. A riqueza, pelo índice de Margalef e Perfil de Rényi, não apresentou diferença estatística para nenhuma armadilha no período dez/mai. A Mosquito Magnet obteve maior rendimento na mensuração da diversidade, segundos os índices de Shannon e Simpson, observados no perfil de Rényi. A dominância, pelo índice de Berger-Parker isolado,foi maior na Mosquito Magnet do que nas demais, nos dois períodos de capturas. O perfil de Rényi não apontou diferença significante para dominância. Índice de Pielou não mostrou significância em relação à CDC-luminosa para nenhuma das armadilhas nos dois períodos avaliados. Índices de Jaccard e Sorensen apontaram maior similaridade na composição de espécies entre a Mosquito Magnet e CDC+CO2+lurex3. Conclusões: A Mosquito Magnet Independence e CDC+CO2+Lurex3 apresentaram rendimento semelhante, nos meses mais frios e secos do ano. A utilização dessas armadilhas para a captura de determinados táxons pode ser importante ponto na estratégia de vigilância de espécies vetoras. Estudos com maior esforço amostral devem ser realizados para avaliar o rendimento das armadilhas Mosquito Magnet Independence e CDC+CO2 +lurex3 em áreas de ambiente alterado de Floresta Atlântica. / Introduction: The several traps have different performance in sampling mosquitoes,with the need to seek that capture representative portions of mosquito population. Formulate the hypothesis that the Mosquito Magnet trap and CDC+CO2+lurex3 are more effective in catching mosquitoes than the CDC light trap. Objectives: To evaluate the effectiveness the Mosquito Magnet Independence and CDC+CO2+lurex3 in relation to CDC light trap, to catching adult mosquitoes in the agricultural area at the Experimental Station in Pariquera-Açu, Vale do Ribeira, São Paulo, Brazil. Methods: Monthly captures, from 03:00pm-09:00pm, through the 3X3 Latin square from the December 2010 to November 2011. Rényi diversity profiles and indexes of the richness, dominance, diversity, evenness and similarity were estimated for each trap to compare them. Results: Were captured 6055 mosquitoes of the 70 species and 12 genera. CDC light traps sampled 990 specimens of 42 species and 10 genera, the CDC+CO2+lurex3 sampled 1419 specimens in 41 species and 10 genera and 3151 specimens were captured in the Mosquito Magnet belonging to 46 species and 11 genera. The richness, by the Margalef index on profile Rényi, showed no statistical difference for any trap in the period Dez/Mai. The Mosquito Magnet trap obtained higher yield in the measurement of diversity, according indexes of Shannon and Simpson, seen in profile Rényi. The dominance, by Berger-Parker index isolated, was higher in the Mosquito Magnet than in the other traps in both periods of captures. The profile Rényi showed no significant difference for dominance. Pielou index was not significant in relation to CDC light trap for any of the periods. Jaccard and Sorensen indexes showed greater similarity in composition of species between the CDC+CO2+lurex3 and Mosquito Magnet. Conclusions: The Mosquito Magnet Independence and CDC+CO2+ Lurex3 showed similar performance in colder and drier months of the year. The use of these traps to capture certain taxa can be important point in the surveillance approach vector species. Studies with greater sampling effort should be made to evaluate the performance of the Mosquito Magnet Independence and CDC+CO +lurex3 traps changed environment in areas of Atlantic Forest.

Introdução: As diversas armadilhas apresentam rendimento diferenciado na captura, havendo a necessidade de buscar instrumentos que amostrem porções representativas das populações de mosquitos. Levanta-se a hipótese de que as armadilhas Mosquito Magnet Independence e CDC com CO2+Lurex3 sejam mais eficazes na captura de culicídeos do que a armadilha CDC luminosa. Objetivos: Avaliar a eficácia das armadilhas Mosquito Magnet Independence e CDC+CO2+Lurex3, em relação à CDC-luminosa, para a captura de culicídeos adultos em área agrícola na Fazenda Experimental em Pariquera-Açu, Vale do Ribeira, São Paulo, Brasil. Material e Métodos: Capturas mensais, das 15h00 às 21h00, por meio do delineamento em quadrado latino 3X3, no período de dezembro/2010 a novembro/2011. Perfis de diversidade de Rényi e índices de riqueza, dominância, diversidade, equabilidade e similaridade foram estimados para cada armadilha para compará-las. Resultados: Capturou-se 6.055 de 70 espécies e 12 gêneros. A CDC-luminosa amostrou 990 indivíduos de 42 espécies e 10 gêneros,a CDC+CO2+lurex31.419 indivíduos em 41 espécies e 10 gêneros e a Mosquito Magnet 3151 indivíduos de 46 espécies e 11 gêneros. A riqueza, pelo índice de Margalef e Perfil de Rényi, não apresentou diferença estatística para nenhuma armadilha no período dez/mai. A Mosquito Magnet obteve maior rendimento na mensuração da diversidade, segundos os índices de Shannon e Simpson, observados no perfil de Rényi. A dominância, pelo índice de Berger-Parker isolado,foi maior na Mosquito Magnet do que nas demais, nos dois períodos de capturas. O perfil de Rényi não apontou diferença significante para dominância. Índice de Pielou não mostrou significância em relação à CDC-luminosa para nenhuma das armadilhas nos dois períodos avaliados. Índices de Jaccard e Sorensen apontaram maior similaridade na composição de espécies entre a Mosquito Magnet e CDC+CO2+lurex3. Conclusões: A Mosquito Magnet Independence e CDC+CO2+Lurex3 apresentaram rendimento semelhante, nos meses mais frios e secos do ano. A utilização dessas armadilhas para a captura de determinados táxons pode ser importante ponto na estratégia de vigilância de espécies vetoras. Estudos com maior esforço amostral devem ser realizados para avaliar o rendimento das armadilhas Mosquito Magnet Independence e CDC+CO2 +lurex3 em áreas de ambiente alterado de Floresta Atlântica. / Introduction: The several traps have different performance in sampling mosquitoes,with the need to seek that capture representative portions of mosquito population. Formulate the hypothesis that the Mosquito Magnet trap and CDC+CO2+lurex3 are more effective in catching mosquitoes than the CDC light trap. Objectives: To evaluate the effectiveness the Mosquito Magnet Independence and CDC+CO2+lurex3 in relation to CDC light trap, to catching adult mosquitoes in the agricultural area at the Experimental Station in Pariquera-Açu, Vale do Ribeira, São Paulo, Brazil. Methods: Monthly captures, from 03:00pm-09:00pm, through the 3X3 Latin square from the December 2010 to November 2011. Rényi diversity profiles and indexes of the richness, dominance, diversity, evenness and similarity were estimated for each trap to compare them. Results: Were captured 6055 mosquitoes of the 70 species and 12 genera. CDC light traps sampled 990 specimens of 42 species and 10 genera, the CDC+CO2+lurex3 sampled 1419 specimens in 41 species and 10 genera and 3151 specimens were captured in the Mosquito Magnet belonging to 46 species and 11 genera. The richness, by the Margalef index on profile Rényi, showed no statistical difference for any trap in the period Dez/Mai. The Mosquito Magnet trap obtained higher yield in the measurement of diversity, according indexes of Shannon and Simpson, seen in profile Rényi. The dominance, by Berger-Parker index isolated, was higher in the Mosquito Magnet than in the other traps in both periods of captures. The profile Rényi showed no significant difference for dominance. Pielou index was not significant in relation to CDC light trap for any of the periods. Jaccard and Sorensen indexes showed greater similarity in composition of species between the CDC+CO2+lurex3 and Mosquito Magnet. Conclusions: The Mosquito Magnet Independence and CDC+CO2+ Lurex3 showed similar performance in colder and drier months of the year. The use of these traps to capture certain taxa can be important point in the surveillance approach vector species. Studies with greater sampling effort should be made to evaluate the performance of the Mosquito Magnet Independence and CDC+CO +lurex3 traps changed environment in areas of Atlantic Forest.

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is an essential enzyme with an evolutionary conserved function: to terminate nerve signaling by rapid hydrolysis of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. AChE is an important target for insecticides. Vector control by the use of insecticide-based interventions is today the main strategy for controlling mosquito-borne diseases that affect millions of people each year. However, the efficiency of many insecticides is challenged by resistant mosquito populations, lack of selectivity and off-target toxicity of currently used compounds. New selective and resistance-breaking insecticides are needed for an efficient vector control also in the future. In the work presented in this thesis, we have combined structural biology, biochemistry and medicinal chemistry to characterize mosquito AChEs and to develop selective and resistance-breaking inhibitors of this essential enzyme from two disease-transmitting mosquitoes.We have identified small but important structural and functional differences between AChE from mosquitoes and AChE from vertebrates. The significance of these differences was emphasized by a high throughput screening campaign, which made it evident that the evolutionary distant AChEs display significant differences in their molecular recognition. These findings were exploited in the design of new inhibitors. Rationally designed and developed thiourea- and phenoxyacetamide-based non-covalent inhibitors displayed high potency on both wild type and insecticide insensitive AChE from mosquitoes. The best inhibitors showed over 100-fold stronger inhibition of mosquito than human AChE, and proved insecticide potential as they killed both adult and larvae mosquitoes.We show that mosquito and human AChE have different molecular recognition and that non-covalent selective inhibition of AChE from mosquitoes is possible. We also demonstrate that inhibitors can combine selectivity with sub-micromolar potency for insecticide resistant AChE.

Master of Science / Department of Biology / Samantha M. Wisely / Nearly 30% of emerging infectious diseases are caused by vector-borne pathogens with wildlife origins, posing a risk for public health, livestock, and wildlife species of conservation concern. Understanding the spatial patterns of exposure to dipteran vectors and their associated pathogens is critical for epidemiological research to target prevention and control of vector-borne infectious diseases. In recent years, Western Equine encephalitis, St. Louis encephalitis, West Nile Virus encephalitis and avian malaria have not only been a public health concern but also a conservation concern, specifically the conservation of grassland nesting birds. Although the central Great Plains is the most specious region for grassland nesting birds, their role in the enzootic (primary) amplification cycle of infectious diseases may lead to further population depressions, and could potentially result in spill-over events to humans and livestock. The goals of my thesis were 1) to identify the underlying causes of spatio-temporal abundance patterns of mosquito vectors within the grasslands of the eastern Smoky Hills, and 2) to create probabilistic distributions of functional disease vectors, to evaluate disease risk in Greater Prairie-chicken (Tympanuchus cupido, surrogate species for other grassland nesting birds). First, I found that temporal dynamics in mosquito abundances were explained by maximum and minimum temperature indices. Spatial dynamics in mosquito abundances were best explained by environmental variables, such as curvature, TWI (Topographic Wetness Index), distance to woodland and distance to road. Second, the overall predictive power of the ecological niche models of important vector species in the grasslands of the Smoky Hills was better than random predictions, indicating that the most important predictor variables in their distribution were: distance to water, TWI, AASHTO (soil particle size distribution), and mean temperature during the coldest quarter. Furthermore, the spatial analysis indicated that Greater Prairie-chicken nest in areas with a higher probability of vector occurrence than other potentially available habitats within the grasslands. However, I failed to detect a significant difference in the probability of vector occurrence at nest of infected versus uninfected females. Understanding the distribution and abundance patterns of vectors of infectious diseases can provide important insights for wildlife conservation as well as public health management.

Master of Public Health / Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology / Michael W. Sanderson / A zoonotic disease is any disease or infection that is naturally transmissible from vertebrate animals to humans. Over 200 zoonoses have been described (Zoonoses and the Human-Animal-Ecosystems Interface, 2013). Many zoonotic viruses are arboviruses, viruses transmitted by an infected, blood-sucking, arthropod vector (Hunt, 2010). There are several endemic arboviruses in the United States; some foreign arboviruses, such as Rift Valley fever (RVF) virus, are potential bioterrorism agents (Dar, 2013). Arboviruses, both endemic and foreign, threaten public health (Gubler, 2002) and therefore disease surveillance, vector control and public education are all vital steps in minimizing arboviral disease impact in the United States. Mosquito-borne disease threats, such as West Nile virus and Rift Valley fever, are constant concerns in the United States and globally. Current strategies to prevent and control mosquito-borne diseases utilize vector distribution, seasonal and daylight timing, and variation in population numbers. Climate factors, such as availability of still water for development of immature mosquitoes, shade, and rainfall, are known to influence population dynamics of mosquitoes. Using 1995-2011 mosquito population surveillance data from Fort Riley, Kansas, we compared population numbers of Culex tarsalis (Diptera: Culicidae), a vector of several arboviruses including West Nile virus and potentially Rift Valley fever, to a satellite-derived index of climate, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) anomaly. No correlation between the population numbers and NDVI anomaly was observed, which contrasts with results from similar analyses in other locations. These findings suggest a need for continued investigation into mosquito population dynamics in additional ecological regions of the United States to better describe the heterogeneity of environment-population relationships within and among mosquito species.

On assiste actuellement à l'émergence et la ré-émergence mondiale d'arboviroses comme le chikungunya, la dengue ou la fièvre de la vallée du Rift. Ces maladies, responsables d'environ 30 000 décès par an, sont dues à des virus principalement transmis à l'homme par des moustiques vecteurs. En l'absence de vaccins efficaces et face aux limites de l'utilisation d'insecticides, nocifs pour les écosystèmes et entrainant des résistances chez les vecteurs, il est nécessaire de développer des moyens alternatifs de lutte. La découverte récente du potentiel antiviral de certaines bactéries symbiotiques du moustique, comme le genre Wolbachia, représente un outil de lutte biologique prometteur face aux arboviroses. Ce projet de thèse porte sur la relation tripartite moustique-bactéries endosymbiotiques-arbovirus, en prenant pour modèle le moustique-tigre, Aedes albopictus. Cette espèce originaire d'Asie envahit progressivement l'Europe. Elle transmet notamment le virus de la dengue et du chikungunya, et est naturellement infectée par Wolbachia. Les résultats obtenus ont permis d'observer un phénotype antiviral chez les moustiques infectés par Wolbachia, contrairement aux moustiques aposymbiotiques. L'utilisation d'une méthode de transcriptomique haut-débit (RNAseq) a permis de déterminer certains mécanismes cellulaires et moléculaires majeurs du moustique spécifiquement impliqués dans l'interaction avec les arbovirus, Wolbachia, et les deux partenaires simultanément. Le développement d'une lignée cellulaire d'Ae. albopictus stablement infectée par Wolbachia a permis de mettre en évidence le rôle central de l'autophagie dans l'interaction Wolbachia-arbovirus chez Ae. Albopictus / Arthropod-borne virus (arbovirus) are important cause of human diseases worldwide, leading to nearly 30.000 deaths every year. Many arboviruses like dengue virus (DENV), chikungunya virus (CHIKV) or Rift valley Fever virus (RVFV) are transmitted by mosquitoes, and global changes like climate warming or international trade increase vectors geographic range, thus facilitating the emergence of arbovirosis. Very few vaccines are currently available, and the use of insecticides remains the only way to prevent arbovirosis but cause adverse effects on ecosystems, and lead to resistance phenotypes in vector populations. Recent work showed that mosquito bacterial flora, especially bacteria from the genus Wolbachia, can modulate viral infection, a phenotype called microbial interference. These results provide a promising tool to limit transmission of arboviruses, but little is known about mosquito-Wolbachia-arbovirus interaction especially at the cellular level. We characterized for the first time this multipartite interaction in Aedes albopictus, an important mosquito vector of DENV and CHIKV, which is naturally infected by Wolbachia. Results showed an antiviral phenotype in Wolbachia-infected mosquitoes, compared to aposymbiotic insects. We used RNAseq to decipher the major mosquito pathways implemented during mono-infection by virus, bacteria or during bi-infection. Moreover, we developed an Ae. albopictus cell line stably infected by Wolbachia to go further in mechanical aspects, and showed that autophagy is a major pathway involved in Wolbachia-arbovirus interaction in Ae. albopictus

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Master of Science. Johannesburg, 2015. / Ovahimba people from Kunene region, northern Namibia, are known for covering their bodies with red ochre mixed with clarified butterfat, traditionally known as otjize to give them a distinct red appearance. Ochre refers to a clay-like earth pigment which contains some form of iron-containing mineral. A mixture of traditional herbs with clarified butterfat, otjizumba, is also applied around the necks as a perfume. This study was prompted by ethnographic interviews amongst the Ovahimba people which revealed functional uses of the traditional cosmetics, specifically the red ochre-derived cosmetic, as a mosquito repellent. Several analytical techniques were used to determine the presence of mosquito repellent compounds in the red ochre- derived cosmetic and the aromatic plant derived-cosmetic. GC-MS was used to identify the presence of compounds which have previously been found to have mosquito repellent capabilities. GC-MS analysis identified mostly oxygenated compounds which include ketones (2-dodecanone, 2-nanonone, 2-undecanone and 2-tridecanone), aldehydes (heptanal and nonanal) and carboxylic acids (hexanoic acid and heptanoic acid) in dichloromethane extracts of otjize and mostly hydrocarbons (o-cymene, α-pinene, limonene, and squalene) and less oxygenated compounds (terpinen-4-ol and α-campholenal) in plant derived cosmetic extracts. The chemical composition of the cosmetics was also analyzed using FTIR. FTIR analysis for organics in both cosmetics showed presence of vibrational motions including O-H, C=O, C-H, C=C and C-C which affirmed the presence of organic functional groups including aldehydes, ketones, esters, alkenes and alkanes. Peak patterns observed using GC-FID showed that the mixture of red ochre and clarified butterfat released higher quantities of volatiles than when individual samples were analyzed. Mineralogical composition of red ochre was determined by PXRD, supported by FTIR which revealed as significant amount of hematite (Fe2O3), the primary mineral responsible for the red hue of the ochre. Other major minerals including quartz (SiO2), kaolinite (Al2(Si2O5)(OH)4, calcites (CaCO3) and chalconatronite(Na2Cu(CO3)2.3H2O) were found to be present in the ochre powder. Elemental analysis of the ochre determined using EDXRF and ICP-OES supported mineralogical composition as iii Ovahimba red ochre exhibited high content of iron (Fe) and silicon (Si) and a significant amount of aluminum (Al), calcium (Ca) and copper (Cu). Based on % weight, presence of transition metals in red ochre powder identified using ICP-OES was observed in the descending order; Fe> V> Cu> Au> Ti> Zr. Based on the analysis carried out in this study, it is suggested that red ochre provides catalytic role, due to its diverse metal content especially the presence of transition metals including Fe and Cu, which might be influencing the production of secondary products during autoxidation of fatty acids present in otjize, specifically ketones and aldehydes. It was also concluded that the composition of clarified butterfat could be attributed to the release of mosquito repellent compounds in the red ochre derived cosmetic because when animal fat (kudufat) was used as an organic binder, the mixture did not release any of the identified possible mosquito repellent compounds. Keywords: Aldehydes, autoxidation, clarified butterfat, fatty acids, ketones, mosquito repellents, and red ochre