The risk of food insecurity in the form of higher food prices has prompted policymakers in the United States (US) and European Union (EU) to revise their approach to biofuel development. The US Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) and EU Directive 2009/28/EC require long term use of renewable energy in transportation, subject to sustainability. This thesis examines the implications of the US RFS and EU Directive 2009/28/EC in a trade context using a partial equilibrium/comparative static framework. The focus is on the effect of the revised biofuels policies on opportunities for developing countries to supply the US and/or EU markets. For the US, the implications when the volume produced and/or required under the RFS is technologically infeasible with imports of ethanol as a potential policy alternative are explored. For the EU, the impact of the sustainability criteria on foreign biodiesel suppliers in terms of compliance cost is examined. In general, the US policy may enhance opportunities for trade while the EU policy will likely inhibit trade. A discussion of the implications of the mandates for developing countries and WTO is included.

Graphics Processing Units (GPUs) have become a competitive accelerator for non-graphics applications, mainly driven by the improvements in GPU programmability. Although the Compute Unified Device Architecture (CUDA) is a simple C-like interface for programming NVIDIA GPUs, porting applications to CUDA remains a challenge to average programmers. In particular, CUDA places on the programmer the burden of packaging GPU code in separate functions, of explicitly managing data transfer between the host and GPU memories, and of manually optimizing the utilization of the GPU memory. We have designed hiCUDA, a high-level directive-based language for CUDA programming. It allows programmers to perform these tedious tasks in a simpler manner, and directly to the sequential code. We have also prototyped a compiler that translates a hiCUDA program to a CUDA program and can handle real-world applications. Experiments using seven standard CUDA benchmarks show that the simplicity hiCUDA provides comes at no expense to performance.

Graphics Processing Units (GPUs) have become a competitive accelerator for non-graphics applications, mainly driven by the improvements in GPU programmability. Although the Compute Unified Device Architecture (CUDA) is a simple C-like interface for programming NVIDIA GPUs, porting applications to CUDA remains a challenge to average programmers. In particular, CUDA places on the programmer the burden of packaging GPU code in separate functions, of explicitly managing data transfer between the host and GPU memories, and of manually optimizing the utilization of the GPU memory. We have designed hiCUDA, a high-level directive-based language for CUDA programming. It allows programmers to perform these tedious tasks in a simpler manner, and directly to the sequential code. We have also prototyped a compiler that translates a hiCUDA program to a CUDA program and can handle real-world applications. Experiments using seven standard CUDA benchmarks show that the simplicity hiCUDA provides comes at no expense to performance.

Syfte:                        Denna studie syftar till att undersöka huruvida avskaffandet av revisionsplikten fick de effekterna som önskades av EU samt Svenska regeringen, vilket var att minska de administrativa bördor och kostnader för mindre bolag. Det har nu gått en tid sen avskaffandet och det är nu möjligt att se vilka effekter som de berörda företagen har märkt av.  Metod:                        Undersökningen ämnade utföras med en kvantitativ metod med hjälp av enkäter. Men på grund av få respondenter och stort bortfall används istället en kvalitativ metod. Uppsatsen har en induktiv metod.  Slutsats:        Studien visar att alla de företag som ingick i undersökningen upplever en minskning av kostnaderna efter att revisionsplikten avskaffades, samt att majoriteten av företagen även anser att den administrativa bördan minskat. En del av företagen har valt att ta hjälp av konsulttjänster efter att de valt bort revison. / Objective:                  The study aims to investigate whether the abolishment of mandatory audit achieved the desired effects by the European Union and the Swedish government, the goals where to reduce administrative costs and bureaucracy for smaller companies. Some time has past since the abolishment and it is now possible to investigate which effects the companies have laid notice to. Methodology:            The study aimed to follow a quantitative method using surveys. Because of the high number of correspondents who did not answer the surveys, the study follows a qvalitativ method instead. The study also follows an inductive method. Conclusion:               We conclude that all companies who took part in the study experience a reduction in cost after the abolishment of mandatory audit, and that the majority of businesses also find that the administrative burden has decreased. Some businesses have chosen to take use consultancy services after they abolished audit.

I avhandlingen studeras hur kostnadseffektiva underhålls- (uh-)planer för belagd väg kan genereras, på basis av information om aktuellt vägytetillstånd och funktionella modeller för kostnads- och tillståndsförändringar, delvis utvecklade i samarbete med svenska Vägverket (VV). Tilltänkt användning är på strategisk och programnivå, innan mer detaljerad objektinformation finns att tillgå. Till skillnad från hittills använda modeller, så genereras individuella uh-planer för varje vägsegment (en homogen vägsträcka vad gäller aktuellt beläggningstillstånd och beläggningshistorik), i kontinuerliga tillstånds- och åtgärdsrum. Genom användning av Lagrangerelaxerande optimeringsteknik, så kan de speciella nytto/kostnads-kvot-villkor som VV ålägger varje uh-objekt naturligen hanteras med dualpriser för budgetvillkoren. Antalet vägsegment som konkurrerar om budgetmedlen är vanligtvis stort. Data från VV:s Vägdatabank för Värmland har använts, omfattande ca 9000 vägsegment. Genom den stora datamängden har datorprogrammen implementerats för parallellbearbetning. Under avhandlingsarbetet har projektet beviljats tillgång till Monolith PCklustret vid NSC. För att kunna reducera optimeringskörtiderna har modell- och metodutveckling varit nödvändig. Genom att aggregera vägsegmenten till vägklasser har goda startvärden på dualpriserna erhållits. Genom utvecklingen av en speciell restvärdesrutin har den explicit behandlade tidsperioden kunnat reduceras. Vid lösandet av det duala subproblemet har speciell uppmärksamhet ägnats åt de diskretiseringseffekter som uppstår i metoden dynamisk programmering. En typ av tillämpning avser ett delvägnät, exempelvis en väg. Valideringsstudier har genomförts på väg 63 i Värmland – med lovande men inte tillfredsställande resultat (se nedan). En speciell modell för samordnat uh beaktar stordriftsfördelarna vid samtidig åtgärd på en hel vägsträcka. Den andra huvudtypen av studier gäller ett helt nätverk. Flera metodtyper har tillämpats, både för att lösa de relaxerade optimeringsproblemen och för att generera uhplaner som uppfyller budgetvillkoren. För en anständig diskretisering är körtiderna för hela Värmland mindre än 80 CPU-timmar. Genom en a posteriori primal heuristik reduceras kraven på parallellbearbetning till ett litet PC-kluster. Avhandlingen studerar vidare effekterna av omfördelade budgetmedel samt en övergång till en transparent, stokastisk modell – vilka båda visar små avvikelser från basmodellen. Optimeringsresultaten för Värmland indikerar att budgetnivåer på ca 40% av Värmlands verkliga uh-budget är tillräckliga. Dock saknas viktiga kostnadsdrivande faktorer i denna första modellomgång, exempelvis vissa funktionella prestanda (säkerhet), all miljöpåverkande prestanda (buller etc.) och strukturell prestanda (ex.vis bärighet, som enbart modelleras via ett åldersmått). För ökad tilltro till PMS i allmänhet och optimering i synnerhet, bör avvikelserna analyseras ytterligare och leda till förbättringar vad gäller tillståndsmätning, tillståndseffekt- & kostnadsmodellering samt matematisk modellering & implementering. / The thesis deals with the generation of cost efficient maintenance plans for paved roads, based on database information about the current surface conditions and functional models for costs and state changes, partly developed in cooperation with Vägverket (VV, Swedish Road Administration). The intended use is in a stage of budgeting and planning, before concrete project information is available. Unlike the up to now used models, individual maintenance plans can be formulated for each segment (a homogeneous road section as to the current pavement state and paving history), in continuous state and works spaces. By using Lagrangean relaxation optimisation techniques, the special benefit/cost-ratio constraints that VV puts on each maintenance project can be naturally mastered by dual prices for the budget constraints. The number of segments competing for budget resources is usually large. Data from VV Vägdatabank (SRA Road Database) in county Värmland were used, comprising around 9000 road segments. Due to the large data amount the implemented programs rely on parallel computation. During the thesis work, access to the PC-cluster Monolith at NSC was granted. In order to reduce optimisation run times, model & method development was needed. By aggregating the road segments into road classes, good initial values of the dual prices were achieved. By adding new state dimensions, the use of the Markov property could be motivated. By developing a special residual value routine, the explicitly considered time period could be reduced. At solving the dual subproblem special attention was paid to the discretization effects in the dynamic programming approach. One type of study is on a sub-network, e.g. a road. Validation studies were performed on road 63 in Värmland – with promising but not satisfactory results (see below). A special model for co-ordinated maintenance considers the fine-tuned cost effects of simultaneous maintenance of contiguous road segments. The other main type of study is for a whole network. Several method types have been applied, both for solving the relaxed optimisation problems and for generating maintenance plans that fit to the budgets. For a decent discretization, the run time for the whole Värmland network is less than 80 CPU-hrs.A posterior primal heuristics reduces the demands for parallel processing to a small PC-cluster.The thesis further studies the effects of redistributing budget means, as well as turning to a transparent stochastic model – both showing modest deviations from the basic model. Optimisation results for Värmland indicate budget levels around 40% of the actual Värmland budget as sufficient. However, important cost triggers are missing in this first model round, e.g., certain functional performance (safety), all environmental performance (noise etc.) and structural performance (e.g. bearing capacity, only modelled by an age measure). For increased credibility of PMS in general and optimisation in particular, the discrepancies should be further analysed and lead to improvements as to condition monitoring, state effect & cost modelling and mathematical modelling & implementation.

Incineration of waste is increasing in the EU. However, in the incineration process, both fly and bottom ash materials are generated as waste that requires further action. A common goal throughout Europe is to find ways to utilize ash materials in an environmentally and economically efficient manner in accordance with the current legislation. This legislation is the Waste Framework Directive (WFD) which lists essential properties (H-criteria) to classify waste, as hazardous or not. Of these criteria, ecotoxicity (H-14) should be classified based on the wastes’ inherent hazardous properties. The WFD further states that this classification should be based on the Community legislation on chemicals (the CLP Regulation). Today, there are no harmonized quantitative criteria for the H-14 classification in the WFD, but there is a proposal from the EU on a computing model that summarizes all the measured elements classified as ecotoxic in the solid material. However, there may be a poor relationship between the theoretical ecotoxicity, based on analysed individual elements, and their actual contribution to the measured total toxicity. Therefore, to reduce the risk of incorrectly assessing the hazard potential, the overall aim of this doctoral Thesis was to develop a scientifically well-founded basis for the choice of leaching methodology and ecotoxicity testing for the H-14 classification of ash materials in Europe. In Paper I, different ash materials were classified, two leaching methods were compared and the sensitivity as well as the usefulness of a selected number of aquatic ecotoxicity tests were evaluated. Paper III and IV studied different leaching conditions, relevant for both hazard classification and risk evaluation of ash. Moreover, all four papers investigated potentially causative ecotoxic elements in the ash leachates. The results from this Thesis show that elements not classified as ecotoxic in the chemical legislation have a significant influence on the overall toxicity of the complex ash materials and will be considered if using the approach with ecotoxicity tests on ash leachates, but not if using the computing model. In addition, the approach of comparing chemically analysed elements in the solid ash with literature toxicity data for the same elements systematically over-estimates the hazard potential. This emphasizes the importance of using leaching tests in combination with ecotoxicity tests for the ecotoxicity classification of ash materials, at least if the aim is to fully understand the inherent hazard potential of the ash. To conclude, the recommendation for H-14 classification of ash is that leachates should be prepared using the leaching test and conditions evaluated in Paper III and that the generated leachates should be tested in a battery of test organisms representing a wide range of biological variation and different routes of exposure. This classification proposal has support in the CLP Regulation and contributes to harmonizing the waste and chemical legislation. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: Manuscript. Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>

The dissertation deals with an account of actual problem, which can arise within EMC and power quality. The cause of power interruption and what can be done to minimise the power interruption is discussed. It also includes a definition of planning levels and which factors one needs to have control over to carry out a possible planning strategy and how the local distributions net could be more secure. The electrical net could be secure but no system can be free from interruption. The dissertation examines two distribution transformers: GLA40T1 (Glansås) and T399 in Tranås Energy which don’t have regulators. It applies a planning level for voltage variation in the voltage of second level with +/-5 % of nominal voltage. The purpose is to reduce the consequence of high voltage variation and to keep the costs at an acceptable level. The research also makes even clear the similarity between results of the theoretical calculations and results of the practical measurements taken from Tranås Energy. The examination shows that the supposed planning level is fulfilled. / Examensarbetet behandlar de faktiska problem som kan uppstå inom EMC (Electro Magnetic Compatibility) och el-kvalité, orsaken till elavbrott diskuteras och vad som kan göras för att minimera avbrotten. Arbetet innehåller också en definition av planeringsnivåer och vilka faktorer man behöver ha kontroll över för att genomföra ett eventuellt planeringsutrymme, och hur lokala distributionsnät kan bli säkrare. Näten kan bli säkrare men inget system kan bli avbrottsfritt. I examensarbetet undersöks två fördelningstransformatorer: GLA40T1(Glansås) och T399 i Tranås energi. Båda transformatorerna saknar regulator. Man tillämpar en planeringsnivå för spänningsvariationen på spänningen på sekundära sidan som är +/-5 % av nominell spänning. Avsikten är att minska konsekvenserna av höga spänningsvariationer och att hålla kostnaden på en acceptabel nivå. Undersökningen omfattar också en jämförelse mellan de teoretiska beräkningsresultaten och de verkliga mätningarna som är hämtade från Tranås energi. Undersökningen visar att antagna planeringsnivån är uppfyllda

Översvämningar är ett stort problem på flera håll i Sverige och klimatförändringarna väntas förvärra situationen i vissa delar av landet. I syfte att strukturera arbetet med översvämningsrisker togs översvämningsdirektivet (2007:60:EG) fram i EU år 2007. Direktivet genomförs som förordning (SFS 2009:956) i Sverige och denna infördes i svensk lagstiftning den 26 november 2009. Enligt förordningen om översvämningsrisker har Myndigheten för Samhällsskydd och Beredskap en viktig roll då de ska utföra den preliminära bedömningen av översvämningsrisker, bl.a. genom framtagande av kartor som redovisar översvämningshotade områden. Vattenmyndigheter och länsstyrelser ska ansvara för framtagandet av kartor med risker inom de översvämningshotade områdena, samt riskhanteringsplaner för att minska de möjliga ogynnsamma följderna. För att underlätta arbetet med översvämningsrisker behöver samtliga aktörer ha en bra och aktuell kunskapsgrund. Ett av syftena med detta examensarbete var därför att ta fram en kunskapsöversikt inom området. Denna översikt togs fram genom en litteraturstudie och den redovisar bl.a. information om EU-projekt med översvämningsanknytning samt fakta om olika höjdmodeller och översvämningskarteringar. En annan del av examensarbetet syftade till att besvara ett antal uppställda frågeställningar, som bl.a. behandlade hur god medvetenheten, samverkan och krisberedskapen är hos myndigheter i Sverige. För att avgöra ovanstående utfördes en intervjustudie med ett antal kommuner och länsstyrelser, samt med Vattenmyndigheten för Västerhavet. Resultatet visade att samtliga tillfrågade aktörer hade god medvetenhet om översvämningsrisker. En inträffad översvämning medför en utökad prioritering av arbetet med översvämningsrisker och även en större angelägenhet att samverka med andra aktörer om dessa risker. Krisberedskapen var även den mest uttalad hos de som drabbats av översvämningar och visade sig ha en nära koppling till god medvetenhet och samverkan. Slutligen skulle examensarbetet ge svar på vilka riskobjekt som bör bedömas i översvämningshotade områden. För att optimera arbetet med skadereducerande och förebyggande åtgärder bör objekten inom ett översvämningshotat område prioriteras efter sannolikheten att de drabbas, samt hur stora konsekvenserna skulle bli om detta hände. I examensarbetet besvarades denna frågeställning med hjälp av litteraturstudier. Där fokuserades på vilka konsekvenser som kan uppkomma av en översvämning. Ett förslag på riskobjekt togs fram och en översiktlig indelning av hur objekten skulle kunna prioriteras i en akut situation utfördes. Dessutom sammanställdes var data för kartframställning kan hittas för respektive riskobjekt. / Flooding is a major problem in many parts of Sweden and climate changes are expected to aggravate the situation in some parts of the country. In order to structure the work on flood risks the flood directive (2007:60:EG) was initiated by the EU in 2007. The directive is implemented as a regulation in Sweden (SFS 2009:956) and this regulation was introduced in Swedish legislation in November 26th 2009. According to this regulation, the Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (Myndigheten för Samhällsskydd och Beredskap) plays an important role as they will perform the preliminary assessment of flood risks, including the production of maps of floodthreatened areas. Water authorities and other county administrative boards will be responsible for the preparation of maps of risks within the flood-threatened areas and risk management plans in order to reduce the potential adverse consequences. To facilitate the process of flood risks all the players need to have a good and current knowledge. Therefore, one aim of this thesis was to develop a knowledge overview in the field. This overview was prepared by a literature review and includes information on flood-related EU projects, and facts about different elevation models and flood mapping. Another part of the thesis aimed to answer a number of set questions, such as: how good is the awareness, collaboration and emergency preparedness among the Swedish authorities. To determine this an interview study with a number of municipalities and county administration boards, and the Water Authority for the Western Sea (Vattenmyndigheten för Västerhavet) was carried out. The results showed that all the approached players had good awareness of flood risks. A past flood involves results in an expanded priority to work on flood risks and also a major concern to interact with other players on those risks. Crisis preparedness was also most expressed among those affected by floods and was found to have close links to good awareness and interaction. Finally, the thesis aimed to answer the risk items that should be considered in floodthreatened areas. To optimize the process of damage reduction and prevention, the objects in a flood-threatened area should be prioritized by the likelihood that the objects will be affected, and also by how big the impact would be if this happened. In the thesis, this question was answered by means of literature studies which focused on the consequences that may arise from a flood. A proposal on the risk properties was developed and an overall breakdown of how the items could be given priority in an emergency was carried out. In addition, it was compiled where data for mapping can be found for each risk item.

Research focus: This paper asks to what extent the European Union (EU) can influence as an external actor Turkey’s integrated water management policy. In particular this paper focuses on the case example of the water conflict arising over the usage of the transboundary Euphrates-Tigris river basin and what extent the EU can bring to bear its influence on Turkey to bring a resolution to the management of this river basin. Method: This paper consists of a comparative literature review of recent journals, academic articles, official publications and website content as well as respected news website material. The research method used consisted of an analysis assessing the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats facing the EU’s influence on Turkey’s water policy. Whilst this analysis tool is fairly straight forward to apply to assessing the EU’s influence on Turkey’s broad national water management policy, assessing how the EU can encourage Turkey to cooperate further on the International river basin of the Euphrates-Tigris is far more difficult, owing to the controversy and importance of the river to all three Countries sharing it; Turkey, Iraq and Syria. Findings: Through using a comparison of literature this paper has found that the main strength of the EU’s influence on Turkey’s integrated water management policy is through the very definite obligations Turkey must fulfil under the WFD as a candidate member for the EU. Secondly, this paper submits that the EU’s strong river management experience through large river cooperation projects, for example that of the Danube river basin, further enhances the ability of the EU’s credibility in its influence. The weakness the EU’s influence faces is the difficulty associated with Turkeys candidacy process to the EU which if hampered could quickly reduce the EU’s influence on Turkey. Opportunities for cooperation on the Euphrates–Tigris are also looked at positively in this paper especially in the light of a new Middle Eastern politics even though considerable uncertainty remains as to the full outcome. Lastly a threat that could face the EU’s influence is the results that a third way relationship between the EU and Turkey could have on limiting the EU’s influence with regard to integrated water policies. The main conclusion: This paper has concluded that the EU’s influence through the WFD is very strong on Turkey’s water policy, owing largely to Turkeys desire to obtain eventual full membership of the EU. Should the candidacy process fail, this could have a quick and damaging impact on the EU’s influence. This paper has also found that the EU has a strong potential influence in pushing Turkey towards further cooperation on the Euphrates-Tigris, however Turkey’s progress has to date been slow and remains a major challenge.   This paper recommends that Turkey uses the Ministry for Foreign Affairs to open up dialogue with lower riparian river states towards cooperation, that the EU suggest setting up a ‘commission’ as a means of achieving improved transboundary river cooperation and the need for a research network or center to bring together efforts towards cooperation on the Euphrates-Tigris river basin.

Abstract: Acidification was categorized as the main environmental problem in Scandinavia during the 1960’s. Fortunately for Sweden, as with other countries in Scandinavia, has shown a process of recovery from acidification, by emission control. Further Sweden has had an extended liming program to mitigate the effects from acidification. Regarding the acidification assessment of the EU Water Framework Directive, it requires that EU members attain a ‘good ecological status’ in their surface waters. The status is defined as a deviation from a reference value and this is achieved using a reference reflecting a preindustrial state. As the waters are recovering from acidification the liming program can be reduced. Hence, there is a need to develop tools that can be used for decisions to stop liming in single waters. This study states three approaches: the well known hydrochemical model MAGIC, a meta-MAGIC model which calibrates the reference value computed by MAGIC model and paleolimnology studies. The latter is the key because it is the one that measures the reference value by immediate samples insitu. However, all methods have advantages and disadvantages, which allowed the development of an additional tool called meta-paleo for the same purpose. This meta-paleo model is designed based on an 11 years mean of contemporary water chemistry and paleolimnology data of 71 lakes. This tool for acidification assessment enables to work with few parameters of water chemistry. However it is concluded that the model has uncertainties, which should be evaluated so it can be used as a tool for decision making.